Term
|
Definition
| two nitrogen rings, Adnene, Guanine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one nitrogen ring, cytosine thymine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| copying dna during S phase, begins at origin of replication, many many throughout DNA, complementary pairs CG AT formed by DNA polymerase, semiconservative model |
|
|
Term
| meselson-stahl experiement |
|
Definition
decide which replication model is correct: semiconservative, conservative or dispersive, e coli grown on heavy N
gen 1: one weight class
(so not conservative), gen 2 on lighter N, 2 weight classes (so not dispersive) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| note: dna poly III (pro, euk use letters) can proofread. mismatch repair is if dna poly III fails to correct error enz removes section containing base and refills in correct bases |
|
|
Term
| nucleotide excision repair |
|
Definition
| example: remove T dimer,enz detect error, NUCLEASE removes area, DNA poly i and or ii fill 5-3 using other strand as template, nicks in backbone sealed by dna ligase |
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Term
|
Definition
| gap left by primer unfilled at 5 end of new strand, hence strand shortens each time, so: telomere 100-1k repeated 6 base sequence ex TTAGGG can be eaten away to protect real genes from damage, problem: rna primers can't go to end of strand. telomerase: rna containing enz that makes telomeres in germ line and cancer cells |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| disease causing dead bacteria can transform harmless ones. problem: unable to isolate dna or protein enz as transfer agent, protein more attractive hereditery material |
|
|
Term
| avery mccarthy macleod 1944 |
|
Definition
| finish griffith, digest everything but one element, got transformation only with nucleic acids and purified dna |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| tag aa/proteins w radio sulfur, tag nucleotides/dna with phosph, grow phages, allow phages to inject genome, centrifuge cells, conclusion: no sulfur in cells, phos in cells hence dna is genome |
|
|
Term
| rosylin franklin early 1950s |
|
Definition
| x ray diffraction photo of dna, watson of watson and crick sees it, should have got nobel but you know sexism etc |
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Term
|
Definition
| dna double stranded helix, follow chargaff and franklins x ray diffraction, relized: built in copying mechanism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| zap bread mold with radiation, knock out genes, saw how enzyme pathways worked hence "one gene one enzyme" which becomes "one gene one polypeptide" [diff genes can contribute to polypeptides to proteins] later |
|
|
Term
| one gene one polypeptide execptions |
|
Definition
| control sequences and interons -- non coding gene sequences, trna and rrna -- non proteins coded by genes, also: overlapping reading frames [one gene extends into reading frame of anther so sort of one gene two polypeptides] |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| bedsoe: region of dna with final product polypeptide or rna molecule |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
dna (transcription) rna (translation) protein
reverse transcription: HIV from rna to dna
dna -> dna = replication
note: 7 types of rna, not all mRNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| convert DNA to mRNA intermediate, carry to ribosome, dna transcribed by rna polymerase |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| reading mrna into AA sequence, protein synth, occurs on ribosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| after protein synt, post termination from ribosome, folding via molecular chap, add sugar or lipid groups add remove po4 to activate/inactiveate |
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Term
|
Definition
| three RNA nucleotides, 5-3, uricil replaces thymine, four bases three units per so 4^3=64 one start AUG (methoyonine) three stop UAA UAG UGA (no AA) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 2 AAs have one codon: triptophan and methoinine, other 18 have 2-6 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
rna poly unzips dna, copies one strand, reads 3-5, synth 5-3, [t now U]
1. bind/initiate: [pro sigma binds to rna poly this binds to upstream promoter] [euk basal transcription factors bind to promoter region on dna, rna poly follows]
2. elongation [many rna poly can do this at once many many copies of gene rapid expression]
3. termination [dna sequence called terminator transcribed but it is the transcribed RNA sequence that CAUSES rna poly to fall off
now: mrna processing "maturing", euk genes scattered and must edit [prok can convert new mrna to protein already] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
euk only: right after transcription.
1. 5' cap [modified guanine + 3 po4s, attachment signal to ribosome/prevent degredation at 5 end]
2. 3 poly a tail [30-200 adnines to 3 end, prevent degredation, enz cleave off old tail to put new one on]
also: rna splicing [next card] |
|
|
Term
| rna splicing [kind of rna processing] |
|
Definition
euk only: interon/exons
1. splicosome: [cluster of balls of: snRNPs -- proteins {small nuclear ribo nucleo proteins + rna}]
2. catalytic rna! of snerp slices out interons, loops them with AU bond, seals exons with phosphodiester
3. once more: cutting/joining done by snRNA "ribosyme"
4. clue: hereditary information and metabolism co-evolved in RNA world |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. trna: 3' charged/loaded end has specific AA [acyl bond], each AA has own trna(s), total ~47 b/c redudant. 5' end anticodon (3-5) binds to complementary codon on mrna
2. thus: AA deposited in correct order
3. some double and single strand regions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. there are only 47 trnas but 61 mrna codons
2. many aas have more than one codon
3. most codons for same AA have same fist two nucleotides and diff third
4.wobble=relax base rules for third codon
5. GGU codon pairs with both CAA [correct] and CAG [mismatch] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. loads AA onto 3' trna with acyl bond
2. one synthetase for each of 20 aa |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. bind/initiate: mrna and small sunbunit of ribosome bind, requires initiation factors
2. [pro: shine-delgarno seq on small ribo subunit, 5 AGGAGGU 3 ~6 codons from AUG/meth
rest on notecards |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. post translation
2. often parts of original peptide -- short peptides that signal destination of protein [er, pm, etc] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. catalytic rna does synthesis peptide bonds of AA's into polypeptides/proteins
2. catalytic rna breaks acyl bonds between AA's and trna's
3. ribosome thus "ribosyme" catalytic nucleic acid
4. translation requires lots of ATP [not mentioned elsewhere] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| change/alteration of single nucleiotide, four kinds possible: silent, missense "replacement", nonsense and frameshift |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| redundant AA code means no change, neutral in darwin sense |
|
|
Term
| missense/replacement point mut |
|
Definition
| nucliotide shift means different AA is coded, may be beneficial, neutral or deleterious [lower fitness] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| change nucliotide to cause early stop codon, polypeptide truncated, almost always bad |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
addition/deletion of nucleiotide, new reading frame, massive missense, almost always bad --
imagine: three new bases added, some change occurs but NOT significant frameshift mutation |
|
|
Term
| chromosome level mutations |
|
Definition
massive changes in entire chromosomes
four types: polyploidy, aneuploidy, inversion, translocation -- all are almost always bad |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| ie downs syndrome, addition or deletion of chromosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a change in the number of each type of chromosome ie 2N to 3N almost always bad |
|
|
Term
| inversion/translocation mutation [chromosome level] |
|
Definition
| chromosome fragments become detached when accidental breaks occur, segments flip and rejoin -- if they join another chromosome it's "translocation" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. phage attaches to host
2. injects genome
3. host chromosome degredation
4. use host metabolism to make genomes and proteins [such as capisd]
5. phage particles form, phage genome surrounded by proteins [like capsid]
6. cell lyses, lets out phage particles, phage has reproduced |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. phage attach to host [only some types can do this]
2. phage inserts genome
3. phage genome integrates into host genome
4. phage spreads in host population -- transmitted each split
5. stress makes prophage excise "trojan horse" -- enter lytic cycle |
|
|
Term
| operon [only proks have these] |
|
Definition
1. cluster of metabollicaly related genes [in prok, unique end to end, all transcribed at once and related]
2. a single promoter [control sequence for RNA poly to bind]
3. an operator [on the side of the promoter next to the metabolically related genes
4. operon functions to regulate synth of metabolically related enz [all same pathway] in response to conditions
5. also: respond to absence of thing to be made |
|
|
Term
| repressible operons "anabolic pathways" |
|
Definition
1. transcription is REPRESSED by molecule that would otherwise have to be made
2. ex TRP operon
3.if TRP is present, binds to and activates repressor which binds to operator to stop transcription by blocking RNA polymerase
4. TRP = corepressor, activates the repressor to bind to operator
5. regulatory gene encodes a default INACTIVE repressor
6. if no TRP, repressor is inactive, RNA poly can synthesize genes for TRP production |
|
|
Term
| inducible operons "catbolic pathways" "break down, metabolic, pathways" |
|
Definition
1. transcription is INDUCED by a molecule that needs to be degraded ex lactose
2. regulatory gene encodes a default ACTIVE repressor
3. lactose binds to and deactivates the repressor, operon is now "on"
4. cAMP builds up when glucose is absent, binds to and activates cAMP receptor protein/catabolite activator protein [CRP/CAP] -- binds near promoter upregs lacoperon
6. if glucose is present, cAMP conc. falls, no CRP "promoter's friend", less rna polymerase binding -- no meaningful encoding of lactose enz very small amt |
|
|
Term
| postitive and negative control of transcription |
|
Definition
negative control: regulatory gene shuts down transcription
positive control: regulatory protein binds to dna and triggers transcription |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| [prok dont have sex] three ways to recombine genes: transformation, transduction, conjugation |
|
|
Term
| transformation [prok gene recombination] |
|
Definition
1. taking in naked DNA from dead bacteria
2. sometimes dead dna produced from lytic cycle
3. bacteria can use DNA as a cabond energy source -- ingested and often degraded but sometimes uptaken into chromosome
4. recall griffith: dead disease causing bacteria transformed non disease causing |
|
|
Term
| gen. transduction [pro genetic recombination] |
|
Definition
1. one kind of phage mediated genetic recombination
2. recall lytic cycle: what if host particle got packed into new viral particles + capsid proteins? [packaging error]
4. cell lysis, new viron infects other bacteria
5. new host will either destroy genome, it will become a plasmid [if it originally was] or it will "conjugate" into host chromosome
5. sliced up with restriction enz to fight infection, defeated
6. often novel new traits, antibiotic resistance etc |
|
|
Term
| special transduction [pro genetic recombination] |
|
Definition
1. mistake of EXCISION not of PACKING [like gen transduction]
2. prophage [lysogenic cycle] excises imprecisely, brings along part of host genome
3. new viral particle infects another host
4. new host absorbs viral/old host dna into chromosome, phage becomes prophage
5. bacteria not destroyed immediately, prophage just uses it as host
6. lysogenic bacteria/prophages
7. old host dna can deliver novel traits |
|
|
Term
| conjugation [pro genetic recombo] |
|
Definition
1. dna transfer between two living bacterial cells
2. one way transfer from donor to recipient
3. via direct physical contact
4. can add useful genes [antibiotic resistance]
5 =/= sex, one way transfer not each giving 1/2 a genome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. double stranded DNA dsDNA [herpes simplex 1]
2. ssDNA [rosola, "baby measeles"]
3. dsRNA [diarrhea]
4. ssRNA [for replication/protein synth ex HIV]
all other organisms have double stranded DNA genomes
note: parts of tRNA double stranded RNA, possible early life was double RNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. hiv particles have two ss particles of RNA with a reverse transcriptase attached to each
2. in human cells: reverse transcriptase forms a RNA/DNA hybrid
3. DNA complement is made and incorporated into host chromosome
4. this new genetic info encodes enz of virus and allows it's replication
5. reverse transcriptase CANNOT proofread the way DNA poly iii can -- many more errors
6. result: HIV fastest evolving organism on earth -- strain changes rapid within same host |
|
|
Term
| basic characteristics of euk chromosome/cell |
|
Definition
1. linear chrom, enclosed in nucleus
2. chromatin complex with proteins [prok = no chromatin]
3. repetitive dna
4. interons/exons
5. complex organelles [mito w/ own genome, er, chloroplasts with own genome, centroles [may have own dna too]] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. small genome
2. circular, protein free DNA, no chromatin
3. have operons
4. very fast generation time [euk have multiple tissue types, prok do not have this problem] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. formerly "junk dna", many still of unknown function
2. repeated several to several million times
3. roy britten, cal tech, ultrasound/heat, cut, split and denatured -- saw that some areas rebound quickly [in seconds rather than hours] so must be repetitive
4. some repetive sequences code RNAs that have regulatory expressions [more later] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. short repeats 1-10bp long
2. 10^5 - 10^7 copties
3. [wikipedia] makes up heterochromatin
4. some repetitive sequences encode RNAs that have regulatory functions |
|
|
Term
| multigene fams [repetitive dna] |
|
Definition
1. produced by repeated gene duplication [book: by means of unequal crossing over during meiosis]
2. rRNA genes, rRNA molecules have half lives so many genes must exist to code for it
3. histone genes, there must be enough to make [2 H2A H2B H3 H4] every time cell goes through s phase lots needed
3. hemoglobin genes: alpha/beta [both have various versions, expressed at different times during development]
4. can include psuedogenes and coding genes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. "inactive" does not code product
2. have lost regulatory sequences like promoters, [cannot be expressed as rna polymerase cannot bind]
3. may have premature stop codon |
|
|
Term
| control of gene expression euk [overview] |
|
Definition
1. expression tightly controlled, development and maintenance
2. ex stem cells have cues to return to cell cycle to heal wounds
3. only some genes expressed in specific tissues
4. some genes turned off via DNA methylation - prevents transcription
5. histone actylation loosens dna nucleosomes [dna wrapped around four histones] [better access for rna polymerase to protmoters]
6. control elements involved [details later] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| # of repeats show proclivity and likleyhood of getting disease, if you're homoz dom you have many many many |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. alternative splicing, occurs in nucleus via catalytic RNA in snerps -- there are multiple ways of linking mRNA after interons removed [ex tropomyosin for skel or smooth muscle] -- exception from one gene one polypeptide hypothesis
2. another kind: rna degredation. if cell chooses not to express mRNA no caps added and mRNA degrades in nucleus |
|
|
Term
| transcription factors [basal] |
|
Definition
1. required for transcription but at basal level
2. TFIID, binds to TATA box of promoter [located before promoter]
3. other TFII's bind to promoter on or near TATA box
4. binding of transcription assoc. fators TAF
5. RNA polymerase II binds
6. all of above: transcription initiation complex [basal transcption begins] |
|
|
Term
| specific transcription factors/"regulatory transcription factors" |
|
Definition
1. time/tissue specific -- some tissues at some times
2. upregulate
3. our example: activators [two domains]
4. [domain one] DNA binding domain binds to "enhancer" DNA sequence far from Trans Init. Complex
5. loop forms when enhancer + activator bind
6. [domain two] interacts via mediator complex proteins with Trans Int Complex
7. now: huge upregulation of TRANSCRIPTION =/= gene expression which is the production of relevant polypeptides |
|
|
Term
| chromatin and gene expression [euk] |
|
Definition
1. only euk have chromatin
2. relaxation/condensation of chromatin is basic block on gene expression
3. must be on "beads on a string" stage [beads, 30nm, scaffold, chromosome]
4. Coactivators bind to histones of nucleosomes and add acetyl groups -- relaxes chromatin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. microRNA exported to cytoplasm
2. miRNA becomes single strand
3. if perfect fit with mRNA, slice in half [binds 3-5, complementary on mRNA]
4. if imperfect: bind to 5' cap and prevent binding to small ribosomal subunit
5. last hurdle of gene expression that we talk about |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. the process that LEADS to an OBSERVABLE differentiation of a cell, progressive restriction of cell fate
2. in most animals: this occurs at first cell division [because some parts of cell are not evenly divided between divisions -- ie localized mRNAs see bicoid/axis etc]
3. only when cell begins DIFFERENTIATION can we see what kind of cell it is DETERMINED to be -- but it has been determined the whole time
4. both processes involve exprssion of tissue specific proteins [spec. trans. factors] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1. again, this is when we can see what kind of cell it is going to be -- it has been DETERMINED the whole time [and what it is determined to be could be deduced on a microbio level] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. MYOblast DEtermination gene
2. MyoD is a protein encoded by MyoD gene, specific to skel muscle
3. MyoD protein is a transcription factor
4. once a cell expresses this factor -- it is determined to become skel muscle but we do not see this until differentation
5. we could see this at the molecular level, however, if we could see that myoD had been expressed
6. stimulates transcription of other muscle specific transcription factors and these activate muscle protein genes
7. thus muscle proteins coded for [actin, myosin etc]
8. cascade of interaction: MYOD TF -> [express] muscle specific TF -> [express] muscle protein genes -> create actin/myosin
8. hence: myoD is master regulatory gene |
|
|
Term
| Pattern formation [D melanogaster] |
|
Definition
1. establishment of precise spatial relationships between parts during development
2. ex tetrapod [vertrebrate w limbs] limb development -- pattern between bones in humerus and radius/ulna etc |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. via maternal effect genes [genes mother expressed that effect young - aka egg polarity genes]
2. master: bicoid [two tail mutations] [operates via concentration gradient discovered by radioactive single strand complement DNA probe -- low/no concent. in tail]
3. bicoid is specific/regulatory transcription factors -- head has high level of transcription of anterior structures/tail very low levels
3. four axis: time, vent/dorsal, ant/post, left/right |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. after axis specification [via bicoid], master bicoid activates all which activate next
2. segment: region that contains set of structures and repeated along it's length
3. "gap genes" expressed first - set up general ant/post subdivisions [head, thorax, ab]
4. mutants have "gap" therefore gap genes
[next card] |
|
|
Term
| segmentation process [cont.] |
|
Definition
1. "pair rule genes" second, activated by gap genes
2. mark the edges of individual segments
3. normal: lays out segments in 7 [seven] pairs,
4. mutations result in loss of either odd or even segments
5. last: "segment polarity genes" -- set up bounds [anterior/post axis of each segment] within individual
segments
7. last: homeobox genes |
|
|
Term
| homeobox=homeotic genes + hox genes [subset] |
|
Definition
1. once segmentation has completed [bicoid, gap, pair rule, segment polarity genes all expressed]
2. master regulatory gene for parts "structures"
3. encode transcription factors that control expression of genes involved in body part production -- "what goes where" "structures appropiate for this location"
4. mutations: legs in place of antennae etc
5. the proteins required for structures [ie wings] produced by effector genes
-- which are regulated by homeotic genes called HOX genes
6. hox gene binds to DNA because of homeodomain [60AA active site of homeotic transcription factor, binds to DNA]
7. homeobox = 180bp, encodes 60AA homoeodomain
8. effector genes not well understood
9. ~homeotic step: cells fully determined but NOT differetiated until EFFECTOR genes active |
|
|
Term
| fertilzation [egg, animals] |
|
Definition
| 1. activate zygote, begin metabolism , acrosomal reaction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. last step of differentation cascade, cell fully determined by homoeotic step, not differentiated until effector gene
2. change proliferation, death, movement and differentiation of cells
3. produce structure protein |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. acrosome at top of sperm, contains enz which degrade jelly coat of egg
2. also has molecules for recptors on viteline layer [lock and key fit to enter egg]
3. egg PM depolarizes for "fast block", 10s until repolarization,
4. activates the egg, now fertilized and diploid
5. followed by cortical reaction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. "slow block" to polyspermy
2. after acrosomal process
3. wave of [Ca2+], egg releases coritcal granules from just under PM
4. jelly coat and viatline layer lifted away
5. fertilization envelope/membrane forms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. protein synth started, but from stored mature maternal mRNAs packed in egg,
2. unevenly distributed to restrict cell fate
3. cleaveage = cell division without growth in cytoplasm etc [cycle between S and M no G1, G2] - no growth until later in development
4. so "cytoplasmic determiniant [ex bicoid] stays within one group of cells in high levels
5. zygote> morula [l. raspberry, solid ball of blastomere cells, fills with fluid to yeild] > blastula
6. outer layer one cell thick [most animals] or many layers [verts.] |
|
|
Term
| gastrulation of blastula [embryo] overview |
|
Definition
1. cell movement turns blastula into gastrula
2. form three embryonic tissues: ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm "germ layers", give rise to tissues/organs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. transformation of blastula into cup shaped embryo with several layers = gastrula
2. invagination: surface cells push inward to collapse blastocoel
3. surface cells "involute" [roll] over lip of blastopore, produces outer layer [ectoderm] and inner layer [endoderm], mesoderm between
4. end: endo, ecto, meso, primitive gut, mouth forms later
5. now: organogensis can begin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. production of organs from primary germ layers.
2. endoderm: lining of gut, [evaginations of primitive gut:] secretory/lining parts of liver, secretory/lining parts of pancreas, lung lining
3.mesoderm: muscles, skeleton, kidneys, circ system, NOTOCHORD [not ectoderm], dermis
4. ectoderm: epidermis, nervous system, parts of teeth and sense organs |
|
|
Term
| notochord/neural tube formation |
|
Definition
1. mesoderm notochord WILL NOT become neural tube -- induces ectoderm above it to become it
2. early neural stage embryo, shortly post gastrulation
3. notochord forms in mesoderm cells
4. notochord signals ectoderm above it to flatten and fold on itself
5. this forms the neural tube precursor to CNS, brain, spinal canal
6. notochord fated to die
7. DIES in almost all vertebrates, embryo adaptation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. phyte=plant, spore=seed,
2. diploid stage
3. produced by ferti;ization
4. meiosis makes halpoid spores "gametophyte stage" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. haploid stage of alternation of generations
2. produces gametes via mitotic cell division
3. spores -> multicellular M/F gemetophyte via mitosis |
|
|
Term
| floral meristem tissues [whorls of organs] |
|
Definition
1. sepals: outermost, green and leaf-like
2. petals: second outermost, often bright
3. stamens: M gametophyte develops
4. carpels: F gametophyte develops |
|
|
Term
| complete/incomplete flowers [single flower] |
|
Definition
1. complete: all four floral organs
2. incomplete: lacks at least one |
|
|
Term
| perfect/imperfect [single flower] |
|
Definition
1. deals with sex, complete/incomplete may deal with sex
2. perfect: both stamens and carpels
3. imperfect: lacking one |
|
|
Term
| monoecy/dioecy [set of flowers on a given plant] |
|
Definition
1. monoclous: [mono=both sexes in one plant], staminate and carpellate flowers
2. dioecious: [di=two sexes are not present on one plant] plant has one other the other stamens or carpels but not both |
|
|
Term
| pollen grain [male gametophyte] |
|
Definition
1. occurs in stamen, in anther
2. microsporocytes, 2n in sporangia spore bearing sacs
3. meiosis: four n microspores
4. n microspores do mitotic division become multicell pollen grains with:
5. generative cell: divide to produce two sperm
6. tube cell: will grow pollen tube |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. occurs in carpel, in ovary
2. megasporocyte in ovule goes into meiosis, making four megaspores, three die
3. remaining megaspore divides via mitosis 3x [=/= mitotic cell division, mitosis w/o cytokenesis] to form eight n nuclei in one cell
4. cytokenesis forms: 1 egg, 2 synergids, 3 antipodal cells, and a two-nuclei large central sac
5. total of 7 cells
6. synergids: assist fertilization of egg
7. we don't know what antipodal cells do |
|
|
Term
| large central sac female gametophyte |
|
Definition
| 1. dawn of civilization, provides grains for human consumption, endosperm |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. restores diploid sporophyte
2. pollen grain lands of stigma [tip] of carpel
3. pollen tube from tube cell grows to embryo sac, delivers two sperm from generative cell
4. one fertilizes egg to create zygote sporophyte
5. many plants have self-incompatiblity mecanisms to prevent self pollination |
|
|
Term
| double fertilization and seed development |
|
Definition
1. one pollen sperm fertlized the egg but the other delivered to embryo sac joins the embryo sac to create 3n cell
2. large cell forms endosperm tissue for food storage
3. seed will need energy until photosynth
4. startch = endosperm tissue |
|
|
Term
| proembryo formation [plants] |
|
Definition
1. start with fertilized egg
2. terminal cell will divide to yield proembryo
3. apical/basal axis established by cleavage division [root/shoot axis]
4. basal cells divide form suspensor
5. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. fertliized egg
2. apical/basal [root/shoot] axis established by cleavage division
3. basal cells form suspensor, anchors embryo to wall of seed
4. radial axis established in globular stage
5. cotyledons and Root/shoot apical meristems begin to form
6. growth continues |
|
|
Term
| root/shoot axis and meristems |
|
Definition
1. meristems: mitotic tissue
2. proembryo produces cotyledons [seed leaves]
3. shoot meristem SAM lies between seed leaves in dicots
4. root meristem RAM is near suspensor "tail"
5. axis established
6. mono/dicot - one or two coteyldons
7. prior to photosynth: carbon and energy from endosperm
8. cotyledons are normally different shape than rest of leaves, exist at base of grown plant |
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Term
| radial pattern and primary meristems |
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Definition
1. proembryo will also form radial pattern of tissues
2. three primary meristems:
3. protoderm: dermal tissue
4. ground meristem: ground tissue
5. procambium: vascular tissue [xylem and pholem] |
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Term
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Definition
1. dehydrates, stops metabolism of proembryo
2. seed coat forms from integuments
3. mutualism with other species to cross pollinate
4. seed coat protects from attack/dehydration allows long storage
5. inlibation: uptake of water reactivates seed metabolism and begins growth
7. angiosperm innovation: enhanced seed dispersal |
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Term
| asexual reproduction [plants] |
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Definition
1. modular plants: cuttings grow on their own
2. modual: internode [region of stem between leaves], leaf and axillary bud [meristematic tissue]
3. fragments survive as clones
4. some plants do this themselves via programmed cell death others need help |
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Term
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Definition
| Big, Girls, Pout, So, Hard |
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Term
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Definition
| enz that bind to histone groups to add acetly groups to dna and relax it |
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Term
| specific trans factors vs activator |
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Definition
| example: bicoid controls entire expression of gap genes whereas activtor just increases regulation |
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Term
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Definition
| asexual seed formation, advantage: seed dispersal |
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Term
| advantages/disadvantages of sex |
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Definition
1. gen recomb a plus in varible environments, heterozygote advantage, seed dispersal
2. lower gene contribution to each offspring, [often overcome by advantages], can't produce clones for a particular environment, if clone is good for environment = high fitness,
3. many species show both sexual and asexual reproduction |
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Term
| mechanisms of plant floral development |
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Definition
1. floral meristem ID genes [arbidopsis thalinia]
2. as day length increases, proteins in SAM make the shoot activate floral organ developing genes
3. shift from vegitative to flowering
4. encode transcription factors
5. expression turns on other genes [like organ identity genes] |
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Term
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Definition
1. positional identity genes [~homeobox genes]
2. mutants: switch one floral part for another [like fruit fly homeobox mutations]
3. four whorls of tisse give rise to four organs |
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Term
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Definition
1. diversity = number of species
2. 1.9 mil described currently, estimate based on fumigation insect sample sample vs smithsonian ~12.5 mil total
3. more than just species: differences in anatomy, behavior, ecology
4. differences in who lives together and how they affect their environment |
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Term
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Definition
1. ~4.6billion
2. layering of sedimentary rocks, grand canyon six miles deep
3.radioisotope dating: look at fossil see how much carbon 14 has decayed [ratio of 12/14]
4. canadian shield: oldest igneous rock, suggests 4.6 billion age of earth |
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Term
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Definition
1. hutton 1795: "gradualism", profound change in slow geologic process
2. ie marine clam fossil on top of mt everest [~50million yrs to form]
3. lyell 1830 "uniformatarism", building = erosion |
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Term
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Definition
1. 1700s, pioneered paleontology
2. history of life in fossils
3. extinction occurs -- ex mastadons
4. "special creation" not evolution |
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Term
| linnaeus [read by darwin] |
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Definition
1. hierarchy
2. kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
3. "god creates linnaeus arranges
4. "top down"
5. Darwin: "same result if process is bottom up" |
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Term
| Lamarack [read by darwin] |
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Definition
1. 1809, first posited evolution
2. spont generation, each form is simple at first
3. platonic: each form moves up ladder of life to perfection [god]
4. adaptation: organisms evolve to fit environment so not totally "special creation" -- change over time
5. "felt needs", inheritance of acquired characteristics
6. first internally consistent evolutionary theroy |
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Term
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Definition
1. two concepts: evolution HAS occured, many examples, and evolution occurs via natural selection
2. earth very old [from lyle and hutton]
3. population grows exp, food grows arithmetically -- from Malthus -- generalized to all forms of life |
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Term
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Definition
1. 1798, essay on population, priest interested in human condition
2. human population grows exp, food grows arithmetically
3. famine and plague keep population in check
4. generalized by darwin to all forms of life |
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Term
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Definition
1. Darwin AND alfred russel wallace [less fleshed out]
2. natural selection > felt needs [Lamarack]
3. that evolution has occured stands on its own from the proposed mechanism
4. at time many believed evolution occured but denied natural selection as method [misled by "blending genetics"] |
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Term
| darwins reasoning that evolution had occured -- geographic distributions are puzzling |
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Definition
1. galapogos mockingbirds [finches later]
2. found four similar mockingbirds [similar beak etc] but different colors etc
3. also saw a mainland mockingbird [split off from islands] that was very different from all four island mockingbirds
4. theory: different mainland species colonized the island, environmental conditions caused changes in mockingbirds via natural selection
5. descent with modification |
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Term
| darwins reasoning that evolution had occured -- linnaen hierarchical nesting |
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Definition
1. linneaus: "top down" nesting of categories -- god creates outer circle "kingdom"
2. darwin: phylogeny tree produces same result -- all share common ancestor |
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Term
| darwin's reasoning that evolution had occured -- comparative anatomy |
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Definition
1. [figure 24.9] similar nature of forelimbs in tetrapods -- same pattern formation
2. homology: similar in form/function
3. thus: all share common ancestor with same forelimb pattern
4. consistent with "descent with modification" |
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Term
tests of idea that evolution has occured -- molecular biology ???//?
I TOTALLY MISSED THIS |
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Definition
1. if anatomy/behaviors evolve then molecules should too
2. phylogenetic analysis: pattern of branching consistent with modification |
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Term
| Tests of idea that evolution has occurred -- comparative embryology |
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Definition
1. [figure 24.8, 240] early embryos of chick, human, cat
2. gill pouch in all three -- same location as a fish -- but on a fish the pouches split to produce gills
3. thus: all share common ancestor |
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Term
darwin's reasoning about natural selection
part one |
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Definition
1. indiv have high reproduction potential, populations have potential for exp growth
2. most populations are stable in size
3. natural resources needed for survival are limted [malthus' influence]
4. thus: environment can support only so many individuals, only a few of produced offspring survive and reproduce because there is a "struggle for existence" -- confirmed by observation of lots of mortality |
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Term
| darwins reasoning about natural selection part 2 |
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Definition
1. organisms in populations vary greatly, no to individuals are exactly alike [even in asexual forms, mutations and environmental influences]
2. much of this variation is heriable
3. survival is not random, indiv. with inherited characteristics that better fit them to their environment are likely to leave more offspring than less fit ones |
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Term
| natural selection [definition] |
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Definition
1. process in which individuals differ in survival/reproduction, that difference resulting from the possession of alternate, heritable forms of a trait
2. the form of a trait that is heritable and confers an advantage will be present in greater number of offspring |
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Term
| * formal requirements for natural selection john endler 1984 |
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Definition
1. john endler 1984
2. trait variation in population
3. trait heritability -- not all are heritable
4. consistent relationship between trait form and survival/reproduction
5. if all three: natural selection must occur
6. if any one of the three is missing: natural selection cannot occur |
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Term
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Definition
1. mnemonic: King Phillip Came Over For Good Soup
2. Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species |
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Term
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Definition
| def. anatomical and behavioral variety |
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Term
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Definition
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