Term
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Definition
* "Skeletal muscle pump" (striated muscle)
* Venous pressure is the vascular pressure in a vein or in the atria of the heart.
* Leg muscles work with vein valves to return blood to <3 @ very low pressure (0-15 mm Hg) |
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Term
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Definition
= Bulging pressure against arterial wall.
* Muscle walls of arteries push back (inwards) foreign blood to move forward.
* Average systolic blood pressure: 120 mm Hg (<90 = low, >140 = high) |
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Term
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Definition
= Ventricles relax and fill
* Lowest pressure recorded in the arteries
* Average diastolic blood pressure: 80 mm Hg (>90 = high) |
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Term
| Average blood pressure reading |
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Definition
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Term
| What is used to measure blood pressure? |
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Definition
| A sphygmomanometer + a stethoscope |
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Term
| How does the medulla oblongata regulate blood pressure? |
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Definition
1) Baroreceptors (stretch receptors) in major blood arteries send messages to m.o.
2) M.o. sends message to smooth muscles of arteries to constrict (vasoconstriction) or relax (vasodilation). |
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Term
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Definition
* M.o. sends message to smooth muscles of arteries to relax when BP ^.
* Causes BP to v.
* Occurs in arteries near muscles when CR ^. |
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Term
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Definition
* M.o. sends message to smooth muscles of arteries to constrict when BP v.
* Causes BP to ^.
* Occurs in arteries of stomach when CR ^. |
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Term
| What are the functions of the circulatory system? |
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Definition
* Transports nutrients to cells.
* Transports O2 to cells.
* Transports waste products (i.e. CO2, urea, heat) from cells.
* Transports antibodies.
* Transports hormones. |
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Term
| What are the basic parts to any circulatory system (and what are they specifically in mammalian circulatory systems?) ? |
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Definition
* Pump (heart)
* Vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries)
* Blood (erythrocytes, leucocytes, thromocytes (platelets), plasma) |
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Term
| What is the function of the coronary arteries? |
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Definition
| To supply heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients. |
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Term
| What are the muscular <3 walls called? |
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Definition
| The myocardium. Composed of myogenic muscle. |
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Term
| What is the 2-layered membrane that surrounds the <3 called and what are its functions? |
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Definition
The pericardium.
* Protects the <3
* Lubricates the <3
* Anchors the <3 to the body |
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Term
Draw an EKG graph and explain step-by-step how the electrical voltage travels through the <3. |
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Definition
[image][image]P: electric voltage from SA node to AV node, and from left to right atria.
Q: depolarization of the interventricular septum.
R: early depolarization of the ventricles (conducted via purkinje fibers & bundle branches)
S: final depolarization of the ventricles.
T: repolarization of the ventricles. |
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Term
| What is the right side of the heart called and what is its function? |
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Definition
| The pulmonary circuit. Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs, where it picks up oxygen. |
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Term
| What is the left side of the heart called and what is its function? |
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Definition
| The systemic circuit. It delivers oxygen to the cells and accepts CO2. |
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Term
| What is the function of the atrio-ventricular and semilunar valves? |
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Definition
| To prevent backflow by directing the flow of blood |
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Term
| What is the SA node and where is it located? |
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Definition
* SA node = the sinoatrial node. Aka the "pacemaker" of the <3.
* = a bundle of specialized nerves & muscle.
* Conducts nerve impulses to the <3 muscle (the myogenic muscles)
* Located where vena cavae meet the right atrium. |
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Term
| What is cardiac output (CO) and what is the formula for it? |
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Definition
CO = volume of blood pumped by each side of the <3 / min.
CO = HR x SV |
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Term
| Where is the medulla oblongata found and how does it control HR & SV? |
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Definition
* Found in the brainstem.
* Controls HR through stimulation of SA node.
* During exercise:
1) Muscle >< ^ venous return.
2) ^ atrial stretch (more full).
3)Nerve message sent to m.o. to speed up SA node and ^ >< force.
5) SV ^. |
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Term
| What is epinephrine and how does it control HR & SV? |
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Definition
* = a hormone (= adrenaline) released from adrenal glands in stressful situations.
* Stimulates SA node to ^ HR.
* Stressful situation:
1) Nerve impulses from brain's hypothalamus stimulate the sympathetic nervous system.
2) Nerve impulses are sent to the SA node + epinephrine is released.
3) HR ^. |
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Term
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Definition
* Lead blood away from <3.
* Have pulse.
* Muscular/elastic; lots of muscle & elastic layers.
* Can control size.
* High pressure.
* Thick outer collagen layer, narrow lumen. |
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Term
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Definition
* Lead toward <3.
* Have valves.
* Less muscular/elastic than arteries.
* Thin wall, large lumen.
* Low pressure. |
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Term
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Definition
* Between arteries & veins.
* Leaky.
* No muscle/elastic.
* Slow blood flow.
* One RBC through at a time.
* Medium pressure. |
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Term
| What pressures cause capillary transfer and how? Why is fluid forced out =(ca.) fluid forced back in? What do capillaries branch from and widen into? |
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Definition
* Occurs between tissues & blood.
1) Blood pressure (BP) (= hydrostatic pressure) forces plasma out of capillaries like a leaky soaker hose.
2) Osmotic pressure caused by high [solute] forces fluid (plasma) into capillaries.
* Fluid forced out = fluid drawn back in (ca.); excess fluid is picked up by lymphatic system.
* Arteries -> arterioles -> capillaries -> venules -> veins. |
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Term
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Definition
Must include the following lables:
-Left & right atria
-Left & right ventricles
-Left & right A-V valves
-Left & right semilunar valves
-Pulmonary trunk + left & right pulmonary arteries
-Aortic arch
-Superior & inferior vena cavae
-Pulmonary veins
-Septum
-Apex
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Term
| What are the components of blood? |
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Definition
* Noncellular (55%): plasma
* Cellular (45%): RBCs, WBCs, platelets |
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Term
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Definition
* Noncellular.
* Mainly water.
* Contains nutrients, wastes, plasma proteins. |
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Term
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Definition
* = Erythrocytes
* Carry O2, CO2, H+
* No nucleus, but full of hemoglobin |
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Term
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Definition
* = Leucocytes
* Move throughout tissues to fight infections.
* 1+ nuclei.
* 5 types in total. E.g.:
-Phagocytes: eat invaders.
-Lymphocytes: antibody machinery |
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Term
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Definition
* = Thrombocytes
* No nucleus; cell fragments
* Cuts or bumpy arteries cause platelets to break open & release thromboplastin, which works with plasma components to clot blood. |
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Term
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Definition
= an organism or virus that causes a disease.
(Note: viruses are considered non-living) |
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Term
| Why are antibiotics effective against bacteria but not against viruses? |
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Definition
| Antibiotics block specific metabolic pathways found in bacteria. Viruses reproduce using the host cell's metabolic pathways, which are not affected by antibiotics. |
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Term
| What are the non-specific lines of defense? |
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Definition
1) Barrier
-I.e. unbroken skin, mucous membranes (trap pathogens), tears, resident flora (beneficial bacteria), haris, stomach acid, earwax.
2) Non-specific:
-I.e. coughing, sneezing, mucous, vomit, inflammation, fever. |
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Term
| How does the specific (3rd) line of defense work? (There are 2 types). |
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Definition
A) Humoral immunity (production of antibodies)
i) Pathogen (w antigens) is engulfed by a phagocyte: macrophage.
ii) Macrophage presents antigens to helper T cells.
iii) Helper T cells bring antigen blueprint to lymph node antibody factories (B cells)
iv) B cells divide to form clones that secrete antibodies.
v) Antibodies bind to antigens and agglutinate (clump) cells.
vi) Macrophages eat clumps.
B) Cell-mediated immunity (more for viruses)
-Killer T cells puncture cell membranes of infected cells. |
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Term
| What is the difference between antigens and antibodies? |
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Definition
Antigens = Substances that provoke an immune response.
Antibodies = proteins secreted as a result of the antigen-provoked immune response. |
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Term
| What are the functions of the lymphatic system? |
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Definition
* Circulatory: Open ducts collect excess fluid (w/o large proteins) from capillary exchange. Fluid moves through lymph vessels via muscle contractions & 1-way valves (like veins).
* Immune response: Pathogens & other foreign substances are primarily destroyed @ lymph nodes (lymph nodes -> swollen (rapidly reproduce) when fighting an infection). |
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Term
| What is lymph? How is it filtered? |
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Definition
= a fluid similar to tissue fluid but with more leucocytes.
* Filtered by lymph nodes (contain large # of WBC's) that detect invaders in the lymph. |
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Term
| What are the effects of HIV on the immune system? |
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Definition
* v # of active lymphocytes.
* Loss of ability to produce antibodies. |
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Term
| What is the cause and transmission of AIDS? |
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Definition
* AIDS = Aquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.
* Cause: Infection with HIV
* Transmission: sexual, exposure to blood-borne pathogens, perinatal (mother->child). NOT through casual contact. |
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Term
| What is the difference between ventilation, gas exchange, and cellular respiration? |
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Definition
* Ventilation = Inhalation / exhalation. Produces a [] gradient in alveoli/lungs.
* Gas exchange = O2/CO2 diffusion across alveoli/capillary area.
* Cellular respiration = Uses CO2 and makes O2. |
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Term
| Why do we need a ventilation system? |
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Definition
| Larger organisms need to maintain high [] gradients in the alveoli. |
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Term
| What features of the alveoli adapt them to their role in gas exhange? |
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Definition
* Large total surface area
* Good blood supply: a dense network of capillaries are adjacent.
* Thin wall consisting of 1 layer of flattened cells - short diffusion distance.
* Moist membrane.
* Inner surface is covered with surfactant (prevents alveoli from deflating after each exhalation)
* Large [] difference with blood. |
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Term
| Explain the mechanism of ventilation of the lungs in terms of volume and pressure changes caused by the internal and external intercostal muscles, the diaphragm, and abdominal muscles. |
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Definition
* Breathing in (inhalation/inspiration):
- ^ chest volume, v chest pressure. Air moves in.
- Diaphragm >< & flattens.
- External intercostal muscles (between ribs) ><. Ribs lift up & out.
* Breathing out (exhalation/expiration):
- v chest volume, ^ chest pressure. Air moves out.
- a) Passive (normal): diaphragm & external intercostals relax.
- b) Forceful (exercise): abdominals contract & force diaphragm up. Internal intercostals contract and force ribs in & down. |
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Term
| Draw and label a diagram of the ventilation system. |
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Definition
[image]Must incl.:
* Trachea
* Lungs
* Bronchi
* Bronchioles
* Alveoli |
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Term
| Draw a graph showing the different types of lung capacities. |
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Definition
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Term
| How is oxygen transported throughout the body? |
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Definition
* Mainly carried by hemoglobin; diffuses through membrane of RBC to bind reversibly to hemoglobin to -> HbO2 (=oxyhemoglobin).
* Oxygen gets picked up at lungs and dropped off at capillaries due to [] differences. |
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Term
| How is CO2 transported throughout the body? |
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Definition
3 ways:
* 10% carried as dissolved CO2 in plasma.
* 30% carried on hemoglobin molecule as HbCO2 (=carbaminohemoglobin)
* 60% carried as carbonic acid (HCO3-). Bicarbonate buffering system:
CO2 + H2O -carbonic anhydrase-> H2CO3 -> HCO3-(aq) + H+
This H+ -picked up by Hb-> HHb
(The reverse reaction occurs in the lungs). |
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Term
| How does the medulla oblongata control breathing rates? |
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Definition
M.o. has a "breathing centre" of chemoreceptors that monitor O2, CO2, and pH.
a) Central chemoreceptors in m.o. sense CO2 and pH.
b) Peripheral receptors in major arteries sense O2, CO2, and pH. |
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Term
| How does the body respond to ^ [CO2] in the blood? |
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Definition
| chemoreceptors in blood -> medulla oblongata -nerve impulses-> lungs (heart) (diaphragm >< more freq., intercostal muscle ><) -^breathing rates-> v [CO2] |
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Term
| How does the body respond to v [O2] in the blood? |
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Definition
| chemoreceptors in aorta & carotid arteries -> medulla oblongata -nerve impulses-> lungs (heart) (^ resp. rate) -> ^ [O2] |
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Term
| What special cases disallow the normal functioning of the ventilation system? |
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Definition
* Bronchitis: mucous excess traps more bacteria, thus blocking bronchi & bronchioles (the breathing vessels).
* Emphysema: alveoli swelling & bursting v SA, thus diffusion area v, and one does not get enough air.
* Pneumonia: ^ fluid in lungs v exhange rate between blood & alveoli. -> restricted breathing. |
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