1)

Communication

• the ability to share information with others
• can be conventional or unconventional (not understood by most; e.g. babbling)
• between 2 or more persons

1)

Speech

• verbal or oral communication

1)

Language

• communicating with others using conventional methods
• rule-governed and agreed upon by others

1)

Articulation

• the act of producing speech through a motor process
• development of structures and through practice

1)

Phonotactics

• allowable phoneme combinations
• how phonemes can be organized to produce words
• e.g. no more than 3 consecutive consonants; use of a vowel nucleus

1)

Speech Disorder

• atypical and/or deviant oral/verbal communication
• Types:
• stuttering
• dysarthria

1)

Language Disorder

• atypical abilities involving the use & comprehension of spoken, written, and/or other systems
• don't understand some aspect of the conventional system

1)

Articulation Disorder

• atypical production or incapability of producing specific speech sounds
• known or unknown etiology

1)

Prevalence of Articulation & Phonological Disorders

• more common in boys
• co-morbidity with other disorders
•  (e.g. ADHD, dyslexia)
• 3% of preschool children
• 2% of children 6-7
• .5% of children 17
• gets better with development & practice

1)

Complimentary Distribution

• a type of allophone
• atleast 2 allophones never occur in the same phonetic environment
• are not interchangeable

1)

Free Variation

• a type of allophone
• at least 2 allophones can occur in the same phonetic environment
• can be used interchangeably

1)

Morpheme

• the meaningful semantic unit
• not the same as a word; not all of them can stand on their own
• stem, prefix, suffix, plurality

1)

Components of Language

1. Syntax
2. Semantics
3. Morphology
4. Pragmatics
5. Phonology

1)

Syntax

• how words are combined to make sentences
• word order & grammar rules
• a component of language

1)

Semantics

• the meaning of the words, phrases, & sentences
• vocabulary
• a component of language

1)

Morphology

• minimal meaningful units of a language
• a component of language

1)

Pragmatics

• how language is used to convey meaning
• context dependent
• modification is required
• a component of language

1)

Vowels

• produced with relatively open vocal tract
• always voiced
• syllable nuclei
• monophthongs or diphthongs

1)

Front Vowels

/i/

/I/

/e/

/ε/

/æ/

1)

Central Vowels

/ɝ/

/ɚ/

/ə/

/Λ/

1)

Back Vowels

/u/

/ʊ/

/o/

/ɔ/

/a/

1)

 Diphthongs

• change in vowel quality during duration
• onglide: initial segment
• offglide: end portion

/aΙ/   /aʊ/   /ɔI/   /eI/   /oʊ/

1)

Consonants

• constriction in oral &/or pharyngeal cavities
• use of articulators
• acoustically less intense than vowels
• shorter duration
• cognates: pairs of similar sounds; only differing in voicing

1)

Sonorants

• produced with a relatively open passageway
• nasals, liquids, glides, & vowels
• sonority: loudness compared to other sounds
• (consonants)

1)

Obstruents

• complete or narrow constriction of articulators
• stops, fricatives, affricates
• (consonants)

1)

Approximants

• consonants in which there is a much wider passage of air
• glides
• (consonants)

1)

Sibilants/Stridants

• some fricatives that have a sharper sound than others
• alveolar & palatal fricatives
• /s/ /z/ /∫/ /ʒ/
• (consonants)

1)

Phonetic Categories for Consonants

1. Organ of articulation
2. Place of articulation
3. Manner of articulation
4. Voicing

1)

Organ of Articulation

• refers to tongue placement & movement of bottom lip
• active articulators
• phonetic category for consonants

1)

Place of Articulation

• area within vocal tract that remains motionless during production
• passive articulators
• phonetic category of articulation

1)

Manner of Articulation

• the type of constriction
• phonetic category for consonants

1)

Coarticulation

• sounds within a given phonetic context influence each other
• happens because articulators are constantly moving into position for other speech sounds
• e.g. /k/ in cake (lips spread) & /k/ in cook (lips rounded) due to the vowels
• results in assimilation

1)

Assimilation

• the result of coarticulation
• adaptive articulatory changes - one sound becomes more similar to (or identical) a neighboring sound
• may change organ, place, manner, &/or voicing properties
• aka harmony processes
• Types:
• progressive vs. regressive
• contact vs. remote

1)

Progressive Assimilation

• target sound influences a sound that comes later in the word
• left to right
• e.g. /p i p/ produced /p i b/
• target sound: p
• sound of influence: b

1)

Regressive Assimilation

• target sound influences a sound that comes before it in the word
• right to left
• e.g. /m u n/ produced /t u n/
• target sound: n
• sound of influence: t

1)

Contact Assimilation

• target sound & sound of influence are right next to each other
• e.g. /d Λ m p/ produced /d Λ m b/

1)

Remote Assimilation

• target sound & sound of influence are separated
• e.g. /p i t/ produced /p i p/

1)

Syllable Structures

• onset
• peak
• coda
• rhyme

1)

Onset of a Syllable

• consists of all sound segments prior to the peak
• e.g. /b I t/, /m i t/, /t æ n/
• isn't always included
• e.g. /I t/

1)

Peak of a Syllable

• most prominent, acoustically intense part
• generally vowels (nucleus)
• may stand alone or surrounded by other sounds
• e.g. /b I t/ /m i t/ /t æ n/
• e.g. /eI/ (stands alone)

1)

Coda of a Syllable

• all sound segments following the peak
• e.g. /b I t/ /m i t/ /b a l d/
• syllables without = open/unchecked
• e.g. /h aI/ /t u/

2)

Dysarthria

• weakness, paralysis, &/or lack of coordination of muscles
• poor articulation skills, timing, vocal quality
• gets worse with repetition due to tiring
• errors are consistent & predictable
• mainly distortions & omissions
• aware of errors
• etiology: neurological insult (e.g. stroke)
• can affect any sub system
• comprehension is not affected

2)

Apraxia

• difficulty with motor planning/programming
• difficulty increases with length & complexity
• start at syllable level when treating
• difficulty grabbing for items
• worsens with stress
• errors are inconsistent & unpredictable
• mainly substitutions
• aware of errors
• display groping behaviors
• easier time w/ automatic speech than spontaneous

2)

CAS

• childhood apraxia of speech
• unknown etiology
• possibly a genetic link
• developmental
• may also have language difficulties or literacy problems

2)

AOS

• apraxia of speech
• acquired through brain injury
• occurs comorbidly with dysarthria or aphasia

2)

Interjudge Reliability

• how well you agree with one or more persons

2)

Intrajudge Reliability

• how well you agree with yourself

2)

Calculating Reliability

2)

Diacritics

• give phonetic value
• important in transcribing atypical speech accurately
• can also mark stress, duration, & syllable boundaries (pragmatics)
• provides more info concerning the actual processes not just production

2)

Diacritics–Lip Symbols

• over the target symbol

• rounded vowel
• unrounded vowel
• labialized consonant (rounded)
• nonlabialized consonant (unrounded)
• inverted

2)

Diacritics–Tongue Symbols

• under the target symbol

• dentalized                       palatalized
• lateralized                       rhotacized
• velarized                         centralized
• retracted tongue body       fronted
• advanced tongue body       backed
• lowered tongue body         derhotacized 
• raised tongue body

2)

Diacritics–Nasal Symbols

• over the target symbol 

• nasalized
• nasal emission
• denasalized

2)

Theory

• based upon a hypothesis that is backed by evidence (e.g. observations, data)
• should be testable
• used to describe an event, circumstance, or phenomenon

2)

Sonorants

• open vocal tract that promotes voicing
• distinctive feature

• vowels
• glides
• nasals
• liquids

2)

Consonantal

• produced with a high degree of oral obstruction
• distinctive feature

• stops
• fricatives
• affricates
• liquids
• nasals

2)

Vocalic

• produced with a low degree of oral obstruction
• distinctive features

• vowels (not /i/ or /u/)
• liquids

2)

Nasal

• produced with an open nasal passageway
• distictive features

• nasals

2)

Voiced

• produced with a simultaneous vocal fold vibration
• distinctive features

• vowels
• glides
• liquids
• nasals
• some stops
• fricatives
• affricates

2)

Strident

• a loud or harsh sound
• distinctive features

• fricatives (not θ or ð)
• affricates

2)

Input

• what you see
• optimality theory

e.g. sweep

2)

Output

• different productions of the word
• optimality theory

e.g. /swip/  /səwip/  /sip/

2)

Generator

• the brain
• comes up with multiple ways to produce the word
• optimality theory

2)

Evaluator

• the brain
• judges the outputs to determine which is the best based on the ranking of constraints for that language

/swip/ faithfulness not violated (no change)

markedness violated (clusters)

/sip/ faithfulness violated (deletion)

markedness not violated (no clusters)

2)

Limitation

• structural-does not have the physical capacity for certain sound productions
• natural phonology

2)

Ordering

• sound is produced but not in the right place
• need practice
• natural phonology

2)

Suppression

• no longer making the error
• phonological process has been suppressed
• natural phonology

2)

Syllable Structure Processes

• cluster reduction
• reduplication
• weak syllable deletion
• final consonant deletion

• natural phonology

2)

Substitution Processes

• Consonant Cluster Substitutions
• Changes in Place of Articulation
• Changes in Voicing
• Changes in Manner of Articulation

• natural phonology

2)

Changes in Manner of Articulation

• stopping
• affrication
• deaffrication
• denasalization
• gliding
• vowelization
• derhotacization

• natural phonology

3)

Phonological Development

• understanding the speech sound form & function within the language system
• language specific
• systematic process for acquisition
• moving from prelinguistic to linguistic sound production

3)

Prelinguistic

• verbal & nonverbal behaviors used prior to having the capacity to understand &/or use linguistic concepts

3)

Anatomical Development-Newborns

• structures mainly used for survival
• primary function-feeding & respiration
• tongue fills entire oral cavity
• large subglottal pressure
• sucking pads in cheeks

3)

Change in Anatomical Development-Infants

• move towards secondary function-speech
• larynx, mouth, & pharyngeal areas
• tongue no longer completely fills oral cavity-articulate
• lengthening of vocal folds-produce vowel sounds

3)

Perceptual Development

• auditory experiences begin in utero (blinking)
• voice preference after 3 days
• change in sucking rate when caregiver's speak
• detect differences in consonant manner (3 months)
• word comprehension (7-9 months)
• COMPREHENSION comes before speech

3)

Speech Development 0-18 Months

• 1: refelixive crying & vegetative sounds (0-2)
• 2: cooing & laughter (2-4)
• 3: vocal play-intonation changes (4-6)
• 4: canonical babbling (6)
• CV - reduplicated & nonreduplicated
• 5: jargon (+ 10)
• string of babbling with gestures & intonation changes

3)

Speech Development 18-24 Months

• protowords or quasiwords
• "invented" words but are used consistently
• first word at 1 yr
• stable phonetic form & consistently produced
• adult like

3)

Research: Diary-Advantages

• comprehensive account of development
• focus on one child
• usually by professionals
• very specific
• led to single case studies

3)

Research: Diary-Disadvantages

• cannot be generalized to a population
• not sure if it is typical development
• other factors to be considered (e.g. family background)
• reliability-would someone else find the same info
• observer bias (parents)

3)

Research: Cross Sectional-Advantages

• determine developmental norms-compare children
• study large groups of children
• select age groups
• standardized

3)

Research: Cross Sectional-Disadvantages

• single word samples-what about sentence level
• elicited through imitated & spontaneous productions
• dialectal variation
• typical development only
• report of means & averages only

3)

Research: Longitudinal Studies-Advantages

• study the same child over time
• studied each week or month
• variation can be detected
• report of developmental milestones

3)

Research: Longitudinal Studies-Disadvantages

• 10-year interval (children are smarter due to educational trends)
• small samples of children
• weekly or monthly visits
• may not demonstrate natural speech (e.g. picture elicitation)
• time consuming
• costly

3)

Processes Uncharacteristic of Normal Speech Development

• deletion of initial consonants (DIC)
• glottal replacement (GR)
• backing (BK)
• epenthesis (EPEN)
• metathesis (METATH)
• denasalization (DEN)

3)

Assessment

• clinical evaluation of a potential disorder consists of 2 parts:
• appraisal
• diagnosis

3)

Appraisal

• collection of data
• consists of:
• case history
• interviews with parents & other professionals
• school & medical records
• evaluation by the clinician

3)

Diagnosis

• end result of studying & interpreting data
• articulatory disorder, phonological disorder, both, or typical development

3)

Screening

• activities or tests that identify individuals who need further evaluation
• cannot establish diagnosis
• can be formal or informal
• short duration

3)

Evaluation

• activities & tests that give a more detailed & complete collection of data
• hearing evaluation
• oral mechanism exam
• phonetic/phonemic evaluation (inventories)
• articulation test
• stimulability measures
• conversational speech assessment
• can establish a diagnosis
• majority are formal

3)

Articulation Test Pros

• easy to administer & score
• provides standard scores
• quantifies "incorrect" sounds

3)

Articulation Test (Cons)

• uses select isolated words
• does not provide enough information about phonological system
• does not test all sounds in all contexts
• not context controlled

3)

Standard Score

• to compare one child's performances on a test to the performance of other students his/her age
• cross-sectional research

3)

Stimulability

• client's ability to produce a misarticulated sound in an appropriate way after a clinician has modeled it

• supplementary assessment

3)

Choosing an Articulation Test

• age appropriate?
• have a standard score?
• allow to analyze the sound errors?
• include an adequate sample of sound that's presenting a challenge for your client?

3)

Supplementary Assessment

• not required but provides more information
• Stimulability testing
• Spontaneous speech sample
• Oral mechanism exam
• Language screening
• Auditory perceptual testing
• Cognitive appraisal
• IQ

3)

Spontaneous Speech Sample

• conversational speech to get a continuous sample as opposed to single words

• supplementary assessment

3)

Oral Mechanism Exam

• structure & function
• size, symmetry, shape
• range of motion

3)

Auditory Perceptual Testing

• speech production perception task
• e.g. discrimination testing
• especially with phonemic collapse (/t/ substituted for /k, d, b/)
• consider relevance, context, position, & sound

3)

Cognitive Appraisal

• may give additional information for treatment & assessment
• cognitive skills are equal to their articulation skills—do not qualify for services

3)

Emerging Phonology

• period when conventional words begin to appear and are used for communication (usually toddler stage)
• appearing but inconsistent
• small expressive vocabulary—express their needs
• unintelligible speech
• semantic delays—generalize things (e.g. all animals are dogs)

3)

Working with Unintelligible Children

• structure the situation
• ask questions that you'll know the answer to
•  gloss utterances as much as possible
• clinician repeats the utterance according to normal production

3)

Assimilatory Processes

• a sound in a word changes to become more like another sound in the word
• can affect place, manner, or voicing
• age of disappearance by 3

• labial assimilation
• velar assimilation
• nasal assimilation
• liquid assimilation

• natural phonology

• articulation assessment
• for ages 1.5 to 18

• phonological assessment
• use data from the Goldman-Fristoe
• for ages 2 to 21.11

• articulation & phonological assessment
• for ages 2.6 to 8.11

• articulation assessment

• intelligibility mainly of fricatives & vowels
• depends on tongue placement
• modified movement & placement of jaw, cheeks, & palate 
• unilateral tongue deviates to the affected side

• etiology of speech sound disorders

• breathe through a permanent stoma in the trachea
• electrolaryngeal speech
• hand-held device with a vibrating diaphragm
• esophageal speech
• swallow air to cause vibrations of the esophagus & pharynx
• tracheo-esophageal speech
• a voice prosthesis is used to divert some air from the trachea's stoma to the esophagus

• etiology of speech sound disorders

• visual learning & vibrations
• compared to TD: slower speech rate, pauses increase
• deletions & substitutions
• confusion of voiced/voiceless
• stops → fricatives & liquids
• confusion btwn oral & nasal consonants
• affricates are the most difficult
• age of onset is important
• important when dealing with children in various phases of their SL development
• older clients: articulation skills decrease over time
• cochlear implants: suprasegmentals affected
• stress

• etiology of speech sound disorders

• thick fluid behind the eardrum prevents auditory input to inner ear
• conductive hearing loss
• inconclusive findings because of methodology
• must consider frequency & time frame
• children are at higher risk for disorders
• occurs most often under 2 years
• usually no long term damage

• factor of influence for speech sound disorders

• aka tongue thrust
• can be caused from the use of pacifiers past a certain age
• frontal lisp
• produce sounds anteriorly
• affricates, /s, z, t, d, n, l/
• swallowing disorders

• factor of influence for speech sound disorders

• tight frenulum restricts tongue movement
• surgery to increase movement only in severe cases
• greatly impacting speech and/or swallowing
• inconclusive evidence on whether it affects speech

• factors of influence for speech sound disorders

• theory: sensations assist with correct placement
• not getting the necessary feedback
• may have more difficulties with connected speech than at the word level
• may help for them to overemphasize their sounds

• factors of influence for speech sound disorders

• age
• gender
• socioeconomic status
• individual variations
• language abilities
• intelligence
• genetics
• birth order

• variation of a sound
• e.g. stop vs. pot; key vs. stock
• based on perception
  
• 2 types
• Complimentary Distribution
• Free Variation

• the study of how sounds are put together to form words
• a component of language

• change one phoneme and it changes the meaning
• e.g. /d æ d/ vs. /d I d/

• atypical comprehension of the sound system & rules of sound combinations of a language
• rule based - why are the sounds not organized into patterns that we can understand or are appropriate
• could have a neurolinguistic dysfunction
• can produce the sounds but don't understand the sound contrast
• e.g. ship vs. sip

• distinctive units of sounds in a language
• help form meaningful contrasts between utterances
• carry semantic meaning when combined with other phonemes

• /pun/ for spoon
• deletion or substitution of some or all parts of a cluster
• age of disappearance by 5

• syllable structure process
• natural phonology

• /wawa/ for water
• repetition of a syllable of a target word
• AKA doubling
• age of disappearance by 2 ¹/₂

• syllable structure process
• natural phonology

• /nænə/ for banana
• omission of one or more syllables from a multi-syllable word
• age of suppression by 4

• natural phonology
• syllable structure process

• /hε/ for head
• omission of final consonants
• age of suppression by 3

• natural phonology
• syllable structure process

• /stwit/ for street
• age of suppression?

• natural phonology
• syllable structure process

• fronting
• /ti/ for key
• labialization
• /fΛm/ for thumb
• alveolarization
• /sΛm/ for thumb
• age of suppression?

• natural phonology
• ____ process

• Voicing
• /du/ for two
• Devoicing
• /pit/ for beet
• age of suppression?

• natural phonology
• substitution processes

• /dus/ for juice
• substitution of fricatives & affricates for stops
• age of suppression by 5

• natural phonology
• substitution processes
• changes in manner of articulation

• /t∫u/ for shoe
• age of suppression?

• natural phonology
• substitution processes
• changes in manner of articulation

• /∫iz/ for cheese
• replacement of an affricate with a stop or fricative
• age of suppression by 4

• natural phonology
• substitution processes
• changes in manner of articulation

• /dud/ for noon

• natural phonology
• substitution processes
• changes in manner of articulation

• /wεd/ for red
• substitution of liquids for glides
• age of suppression by +5

• natural phonology
• substitution processes
• changes in manner of articulation

• /teIbo/ for table
• substitution of a syllabic liquid, "-er", or postvocalic liquid for a vowel
• age of suppressio by +5

• natural phonology
• substitution processes
• changes in manner of articulation

• /lædə/ for ladder
• age of suppression?

• natural phonology
• substitution processes
• changes in manner of articulation

• /fwIŋ/ for swing
• age of suppression by 3

• natural phonology
• assimilatory processes

• /gag/ for dog
• age of suppression by 3

• natural phonology
• assimilatory processes

• /mΛni/ for bunny
• age of suppression by 3

• natural phonology
• assimilatory processes

• /lεloʊ/ for yellow
• age of suppression by 3

• natural phonology
• assimilatory processes

• results in the deletion of a singleton or cluster from word-initial position
• (DIC)

• atypical process

• results in the use of a glottal stop for a consonant
• the process has also been applied when an entire cluster becomes a glottal stop
• it is difficult to differentiate word initial-glottal stops from vowel initiation
• (GR)

• atypical process

• is the process that is applied to non-velar consonants, resulting in the production of a velar or /h/
• substitution for an alveolar or palatal is typical
• is an unusual process and is not used productively by young, normal speakers
• (BK)

• atypical process

• is a process that results in the insertion of a schwa
• the syllable shape is altered from CCV to CVCV
• is a type of cluster simplification when a schwa is inserted between 2 consonants within a cluster
• (EPEN)

• atypical process

• refers to both the transpostion and the sequence alteration of consonants within a word
• has the potential for producing a high degree of listener confusion
• (METATH)

• atypical process

• results in a nasal consonant becoming non-nasal
• can happen when a speaker has a cold accompanied by a stuffy nose

• atypical process

• /kΛpi/ for cup
• addition of /i/ or sometimes a consonant +/i/
• age of suppression by 3

• common phonological process

• /pæt/ for pack
• replacement of velars (k, g, ng) with sounds made more anterior (particularly alveolars t, d, n)
• age of suppression by 3.5

• common phonological processes

• /sεk/ for check
• substitution of a palatal affricate for an alveolar fricative or affricate
• age of suppression by 5

• common phonological process

• /baIk/ for bite
• replacement of alveolars & palatals for sounds made more posterior
• age of suppression?

• common phonological process

• can they produce the sound in context (word or sentence level)
• minimal contrasting pairs
• evaluating for phonological disorder

• direct correlation
• ↑ age - ↓ risk

• females acquire speech sounds earlier
• males - ↑ risk

• ↓ SES - ↑ risk
• inconclusive evidence

• ↑ language skills - ↓ articulation & phonological errors

• ↓ IQ - ↑ risk
• deletion of consonants
• inconsistent pattern of correct productions

• direct correlation to family history
• approximately 55%
• may skip a generation

• oldest will have the most advance skills (environmental)
• idioglossia - twins own language

• language abilities
• gender
• socioeconomic status

• ↑ language skills - ↓ speech sound & phonemic errors

• females suppress processes earlier & more frequently
• males are at higher risk

• ↓ SES - ↓ developed phonological skills
• may lack literacy resources