foreign aspects of Russian society

A. Religion

    - Eastern Orthodox - different values, similar to paganism = idols/incense

B. Much greater foreign threats (Cosacks, Mongols, Ottomans)

    - forces them to have a military society - paranoid and aggressive

C. too many ethnicities (Scandinavians, Vikings...)

reforms of Peter the Great

1. poll tax

    - by each individual rather than household

    - erased social classes = everyone had to pay the same amt

2. compulsory military service - no men ever home

3. fiscals - checked how many taxes ppl owed (many avoided taxes)

4. table of ranks - promoted through hierarchy of state by merit, not status

educational reforms of Peter the Great

a. colleges of math and engineering

b. sponsored translation of books into Russian

c. sponsored use of Russian alphabet

    - developed nationalism

d. sponsored printing presses over all over Russia 

difficulties of farming for a living in Russia

a. climate and soil smelled terrible

b. crop yields smelled terrible

c. Peter the Great raised taxes by 500% to pay for war against Sweden

deterioration of peasant status

a. bound to the land

b. became property of landlords

c. can't own private property

d. can't petition Czars against landlords

state peasants

*peasants who lived on state own land*

- the state was their land lord

- the state used them for the army or building projects

crisis of succession after Peter the Great

- Peter had a son named Alexis but the son betrayed him in a plot to kill him so Alexis was executed = no heir = no king

- not really a crisis because Peter had organized his govt so well that it was able to function on its own

Russian nobility winning back their rights

a. wealthy landowners sent their children to college

    - their children learned enough to enter the table of ranks and make their way back into high society

b. life service in the army reduced to 25 years

c. single son = exempt from war

d. state service = abolished

Catherine the Great

1. was very influenced by the French Enlightenment

    - incorporated their thinking into society

2. killed out all her opposition

3. reformed the Russian political system

    a. divided Russia into 50 provinces and sent nobility off to run them - influenced by England

4. reformed educational system - going to school is mandatory

Catherine the Great's reforms of the Russian legal system

a. abolished capitol punishment

b. abolished torture

c. abolished serf auctions

d. abolished the breaking up of serf families (by sale)

Pugachev's Rebellion

- principal revolt in a series rebellions in Russia

- rebellion of the lower class

- caused by the repressive nature of Catherine the Great's reforms 

- was crushed at the end of 1774

Germany vs. Austria

A. political structure after 30 Years War

    1. Germany  - constitutional monarchy

                      - larger states made their own alliances

                      - some parts Catholic, some Protestant

    2. Austria  - absolute ruler

                   - center of Counter-Reformation, power and influence of Jesuits = strong

Frederick William I's military improvements

    1. appointed only German officers to command his troops             - no mercenaries

    2. noblemen placed at head of locally recruited regiments

    3. every adult male = required to register for military service in his land lords regimen 

Frederick William I's economic improvements

1. welcomed and made generous settlement schemes with Protestant and Jewish refugees

    - expanded economic potential of Eastern territories

2. aggressive land purchase policy to expand royal domain

    - addition of so many new inhabitants in Prussia further increases his wealth

3. reformed bureaucracy and increased revenues

Frederick II's economic improvements

1. conquered the rich Austrian province of Silesia

    a. Silesia dominated Russian economy

        - out-produced and out-consumed everywhere else

Frederick II

a. King of Prussia

b. made many great economic improvements for Prussia

c. said "I am the first servant of the State"  

    - State first, then monarch (Louis XIV - opposite)

    - he is responsible for his subjects and making sure e/t runs smoothly

    - he was a enlightened absolutist 

Austrian difficulties with centralizing

1. many different ethnic groups combined under one rule - loose confederation of disunited, uncentralized states

2. was very autonomous 

   - especially in terms of taxing

Pragmatic Sanction

*a document stating that Charles VI's daughter Maria Theresa would inherit his throne*

- in effort to keep the Habsburg monarchy from ending and the hereditary and elective states from going their separate ways

Maria Theresa's reform program

1. reorganization of the military and civil bureaucracy 

2. condition of Austrian peasantry - have to be able to support family and pay taxes at all times

Joseph II

- Holy Roman Emperor of Austria

- son of Maria Theresa, ruled together for a time

- enlightened absolutist

Joseph II's refusal of the Hungarian crown

A. Causes

    1. acceptance of the crown = forced to make concessions to Hungarian autonomy

    2. the Hungarians declined to contribute at all to state revenues 

War of Austrian Succession

a. Frederick II violated the Pragmatic Sanction = invaded Silesia

b. tried to claim the Austrian throne for himself using the excuse that Maria Theresa couldn't rule because she's a woman

c. ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle

d. ongoing struggle throughout the war for Silesia

   - Prussia vs. Austria

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 

- ended the War of Austrian Succession status quo ante bellum

- created in Aachen

- Conditions

   a. Prussia got Silesia

   b. Austria gave up parts of Italy to Spain

   c. France withdrew from the Netherlands to get some of its colonies back and gave up land to Great Britain and the Dutch

alliances in the War of Spanish Succession

- England/Netherlands aided Austria

   a. to balance the powers

   b. to fight France's efforts to conquer the Netherlands 

- Prussia/France

reversal of loyalties in 1756

a. England

    1. Frederick I was scared of France - enlisted England's help

    2. England already had a hereditary interest in protecting their estates from the German king

b. France 

    1. hates England - switched the the opposite side

Frederick II avoidance of being overwhelmed by Russia

- Empress of Russia died

- her nephew Peter III succeeded her

    - German born, worshipped Frederick II

- negotiated peace with Frederick II

Seven Year's War

(1756-1763)

- Prussia/Britain vs. Austria/Sweden/Russia/France

A. Results

    1. established Prussia as a major power and a counter balance to Austria in Central Europe

    2. initiated a long period of peace in Eastern Europe

Goals in the Partition of Poland

A. Prussia - 1. another country it wanted control of 

                 2. Polish territory separated the Prussian and Brandenburg territories of the Prussian state - wanted to be able to unite them into one unit

B. Russia - 1. wanted to dominate the state that separated it from the German powers (dominate rather than conquer)

C. Austria - 1. to maintain its power and status with Russia and Prussia

                2. to use the Polish territory as a bargaining chip for the return of Silesia

   - ended up gaining the most (largest territories and the most ppl)

Polish weakness that made the Partition possible

1. strong autonomous power of the nobility

2. its army was pathetically in adequate for protecting Poland's vast borders

Great Britain = super power in the 18th century

a. stable govt situation 

    - shared power between the monarchy and ruling elite

    - eased acceptance and enforcement of govt decisions

b. supporter of free trade

c. unsurpassed navy

disadvantages of the British Parliamentary system

1. politics = national pastime

    - decentralization of decision-making

    - half measures = no real full decisions

2. appeals to public opinion divided the nation

    - let them decide = turn them against each other

3. openness of the system = slowed diplomatic and colonial affairs

*nothing gets done because people are too busy fighting*

A. actual and symbolic leader

    - selects ministers

    - initiates policies

    - supervises administration

B. supreme head of the Church of England

*they were the gentry - the higher commoners*

A. Job

    - raised revenues, made laws, presented grievances of the subjects to the crown

B. Preparation for their job

    - had to have had previous experience in local jobs 

       (justices of the peace, captains of the militias, collectors of local taxes) = ppl who understood the needs of both crown, and subject

"placemen"

(in British govt)

*officeholders*

- influenced central policy-making while protecting their local constituents

- developed around the issue of Protestant succession

- opposed to James II inheriting the throne since he was Catholic

- dominant party during reign of George I and George II

   (supported Protestant succession - not James II - supported Hanoverian Succession)

- supported James II's hereditary rights to be king 

- also supported the Anglican Church

Robert Walpole

- able to manage Parliament but desired only to serve the crown

- excellent public speaker

- relished long work days

- understood the intricacies of state finance

- carefully dispensed jobs and offices to build up the Whigs

     (used them as bait to lure Parliament supporters)

1. pursued peace fanatically 

    a. brought prosperity to the landed and merchant classes

    b. brought criticism of his methods

        - men wanted to fight Spain but he didn't let them = got angry at him

        - used govt patronage to build his party = attacked as corruption

reforms of George III

A. colonial administration reform

    - shifted burden of taxation from Britain to North America

    - made the commercial side of colonization pay

    - wanted the colonies to pay for their protection

       a. colonies' reactions to this

           - claimed they can't be taxed w/o representation