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Details Title: ANT100 Description: studying for anthropology 100 at university of toronto Total Flash Cards: 302 Created: 04/14/2007 15:00:28	To study from this set of flash cards, or to create your own your own study flash cards, register HERE. If you are already a registered user, CLICK HERE.
Cards Term Three Postulates of Darwinian Evolution Definition 1. Struggle for Existence - the ability of a population to expand is infinite, the environments capacity is finite. 2. Variation in Fitness - organisms in populations vary, some traits will prove more advantageous than others. 3. Inheritance of Variation - advantageous traits become more common in generations, disadvantageous traits disappear. Term Mutation Definition Occurs when environmental factors change nucleotide so that it is misread during replication. If occurs in gamete, then mutant allele may be transmitted to zygote and into population. Source of new variation in population. Term Natural Selection Definition Occurs when genotype is more successful in transmitting genes to future generations. Term Directional Shift Definition shifts towards favourable trait. Term Diversifying Definition population splits into two new species Term Stabilizing Definition dominant trait becomes exaggerated and other traits diminish Term Genetic Drift Definition Various random processes that affect gene frequencies in small isolated populations Tends to reduce variation in population. Term Gene Flow Definition Process by which genes pass through one population to that of another through reproduction. Spreads genes through different populations of species. Term Phyletic Gradualism Definition Graduated changes in gene pool slowly accumulated over long periods of time. slowly species A changes into species B. Expected to see this in fossils from millions of years ago, however, there was more evidence towards punctuated equilibrium Best used in evolution of Humans Term Punctuated Euilibrium Definition After long periods of little or no change an isolation event separates a small population of individuals. With a different gene pool or burst of mutations this isolated group rapidly evolves into a separate species. Term Herbert Spencer Definition Coined the term "Survival of the Fittest" Claimed that struggle for existence improved society. Term Francis Galton Definition Argued against social programs that might interfere with process of producing fit individuals Term Charles Darwin Definition 1809-1882 Natural Selectionis tha ability to aquire more resources and produce children Applied Malthus' prinviple on populations to evolution Understood that there is considerable physical variety. Variation in beaks allowed separate species to evolve and take advantage of different environemental niches. Term Charles Lyell Definition 1791-1875 Earth is extremely old Falling land masses explain Earth's geology rather than changing sea levels Term James Hutton Definition Uniformitarian processes take a long time to operate and therefore Earth must be millions of years old. Term Georges Cuvier Definition 1769-1832 Theory of Catastrophism Natural disasters change Earth's populations demonstrated that species can go extinct. discovery of hippo and crocodile remains that Cuvier decided must have been left when a natural disaster destroyed the population in France. Term Georges-Louis Leclerc (Compte de Buffon) Definition 1707-1788 Believed that the Earth was 75,000 years old. Denied Noah's Flood happened Observed that some animals retain parts that are vestigal and no longer useful suggesting evolution. Term Carolus Linnaeus (Karl von Linne) Definition 1707-1788 First comprehensive classification system for living things. Each plant and animal named separate species basis of physical resemblances. Scala Naturae belived in divinity of man but grouped them with apes. Term Factors Inhibiting Acceptance of Natural Selection/Evolution Definition Lack of Scientific Method - many ideas and concepts were based on singular observations or fanciful accounts of travellers. Nothing was verified or scrutinized on its validity. Modern scientific approach produce and test hypotheses empirically. Age of Earth - in 1650 the Earth was believed to have been created one afternoon on Oct. 23 4004 BC. Accepted by Church Separate creation for Humans and Animals - religious doctrine that God created humans separate from animals, made in gods image and more divine than animals. Fixity of Species - in the 8th century scientists held the belief that everything was created in its original form and was unalterable. Term Tarsiers Definition Small primates 100-125 g in Southeast Asia Mixture of primitive (multiple nipples) and derived (postorbital plate) and unique (fused tibia and fibua) features. Nocturnal Insect and small animal eaters Skilled in vertical clinging and leaping Mix between strepsirhines and haplorhines Term Lesser Apes Definition Gibbons and Siamangs Most primitive of apes in anatomy - retain many monkey-like features Ape-like limb proportions Spectacular brachiators fruit-eaters, also leaves and insects 5-7 kg little sexual dimorphism or dominance Term Great Apes Definition Three living genera of great apes: Orangutans (Pongo) Chimpanzees (Pan) Gorillas (Gorilla) Term Orangutan Definition Pongo Clear sexual dimorphism males weigh up to 90 kg large cheek pads throat pouches, beards, and long hair solitary lives possibly lack of food resources may live in groups for fear of predation Term Gorillas Definition Lowland areas of Western equatorial Africa - Congo, Uganda, and Rwanda fruit-eaters, stem, shoot, roots, etc. largest apes 250 kg males 113 kg females knuckle-walking well-suited for climbing dominant male group Term Chimpanzees Definition Pan Sierra Leones to Tanzania primarily fruit-eaters good climbers sexual dimorphism 45 kg observed hunting animals social organization is unclear appears they come together and drift apart Term Dispersed Polygany Definition more than 1 female live in range with 1 male that overlaps many females Term Bonded Pairs Definition 1 males and 1 females with offspring that disperse at maturity Term Polyandrous Clusters Definition more than 1 females but only 1 breeds - more males and offspring Term 1-Male Groups Definition 1 male and more than 1 females and offspring. Females stay in groups males are transient Term Classifying Social Organization of Primates Definition Mating Type - how many mates does each male and female general have at one time Residence Group Composition - how many adult males, and females tolerate each others presence in a foraging group. Foraging Group Coherence - do the same animals always forage together Philopatry Type - do males, females or both disperse from where they were born Term Multimale - Multifemale Definition females stay in group, males transient Term Endangered Species Classification Definition Lower Risk - low chance of extinction in 100 years Rare - small world population considered at risk Vulnerable - 10% chance in 100 years Threatened - likely to be endangered in future Endangered - 20% chance in 20 years or 5 generations Critically Endangered - 50% chance in 10 years or 3 generations. Term Nocturnal Definition active at night Term Dirunal Definition active during day Term Cerpuscular Definition active at dawn and dusk Term Cathemeral Definition active any time of day or night Term Frugivore Definition diet of fruit Term Folivore Definition diet of leaves Term Insectivore Definition diet of insects Term Faunivore Definition invertebrae and vertebrae diet Term Gummivore Definition diet of tree exudates Term Omnivore Definition varied diet Term Seed Predator Definition eats hard seeds Term Paleocene Definition Likely that primates evolved at late Paleocene ~ 55 million years ago Plesiadapiformes tiny shrew-sized to small dog likely solitary, nocturnal quadrupeds well developed sense of smell used to be classified as primates because of primate-like teeth and limbs that are adapted to arboreal lifestyle Not primates because: no postorbital bar, have claws instead of finger nails, eyes on side of head and enlarged incisors. Term Eocene Primates Definition relatively large brain eye orbits face more foreward and ringed with bone "split" upper lip and moist rhinarium suggest good sense of smell reduced muzzle small and unspecialized teeth molar teeth broader and squarer produces large chewing surface. Term Adapidae Definition Evolved in Eocene 100 - 6900 g most primitive of true primates diurnal and nocturnal mainly arboreal small ate fruit and insects large ate leafs Led to Lemurs? Term Omomyidae Definition Evolved in Eovene 30 - 2200 g nocturnal and diurnal specialized leapers mostly ate insects and fruits some leaf-eaters Led to Tarsiers? Term Adapid Characteristics Definition Snout: elongated tooth row: parallel Canines: large with sexual dimorphism Postorbital: absent Nails: present Tibia Fibula: unfused Tarsa bones: not elongated diet: insexts, fruits, leaves Term Omomyid Characteristics Definition Snout: short Tooth Row: V-shaped Canines: small with no sexual dimorphism Postorbital: absent Nails: present Tibia Fibula: fused Tarsa bones: elongated diet: insects Term Anthropoid Features Definition evolved in Oligocene fused frontal bones full postorbital plate fused mandibular symphysis Monkeys and Apes appear to have rafted over from Africa Term Parapithecids Definition evolved in Oligocene Fayyum region ape-like - New World Monkeys bony partition behind eye socket broad incisors, projecting canines relatively small brains under 1.3 kg diurnal fruits and seeds Dolichocebus and Apidium Term Propliopithecids Definition Evolved in Oligocene Fayum region monkey-like Old World Monkeys and Hominoids projecting canines bony partition behind eye socket Aegyptopithecus Term Aegyptopithecus Definition Propliopithecid - Oligocene quadrupedally 6 kg long muzzle small brain considerable sexual dimorphism teeth and jaws apelike but size like howler monkey Term Early Miocene Definition 23.3 - 16.3 million years ago monkeys and apes confined to Africa Proconsul much bigger than Oligocene anthropoids lacked tail primarily arboreal may or may not have been ancestral to later apes and humans combination of monkey and ape features Term Middle Miocene Definition 16.3 - 7 million years ago ape-like Catarrhines Kenyapithecus none appear to have link with earliest hominids widespread and diverse in Europe and Asia Term Kenyapithecus Definition Many of Proconsuls features molars resemble modern hominoids more terrestrial thick enameled teeth and robust jaws teeth are modern but limbs do not show brachiation characteristic of later apes Term Late Miocene Definition 7 - 5.2 million years ago apes rarer as woodlands replaced by drier more open habitats Dryopithecus Sivapithecus Oreopithecus Orrorin tugensis Sahelanthropus Term Oreopithecus Definition 8 million years ago adapted to life in forested marshlands apelike body monkeylike head because of suspensory locomotion other and other apelike features it is considered a specialized ape Term Sivapithecus Definition thickly enameled teeth remarkably similar facial features to modern orangutans diet of hard items related to Gigantopithecus Term Dryopithecus Definition thin tooth enamel lighter jaws palette, jaw, and midface resemble African apes very short face and small brow ridges mostly arboreal Term Sahelanthropus tchadensis Definition Chad, Africa 7 - 6 million years ago Chad once covered by ancient lake distance from East Africa show earliest members more widely distributed than through unique mix on hominid and hominoid traits divergences between human and chimpanzee lineages earlier than indicated by most molecular studies Term Orrorin tugenensis Definition Tugen Hills, Kenya 6.2 - 5.6 million years ago may be oldest hominid discovered small teeth retain thick enamel similar to australopitheciens and Homo postcrania evidence of bipedal locomotion but not obligate bipedalism may be first bipedal hominid. Term Aridpithecus ramidus Definition Aramis and Middle Awash Ethiopia 4.4 million years ago mostly or intermittently bipedal - location of foramen magnum indicates head was carried directly over spine important discovery because: woodland setting rather than savanna adaptice trend emphasizing powerful mastication Term Australopithecus anamensis Definition Turkana region Kenya 4.1 - 3.9 million years ago poses mix of primitive and advanced traits probably walked upright teeth covered with enamel thicker than ramidus, diet hard to chew in size and shape teeth were primitive compared to later hominids. Term Australopithecus africanus Definition East Africa 3.9 - 3 million years ago rounded brain case, moderate brow ridges pelvis and leg bones resemble modern humans sexual dimorphism in body size adept at tree climbing based on curvature of fingers and toes cranium averages 430 cc has canines and prognathic face Term Australopithecus afarensis Definition Laetoli Tanzania 3.6 million years ago Gracile family footprints in ash, big toes diverged from rest of foot unlike chimpanzees Lucy complete skeleton indicates bipedal but probably spent some time in trees lived in semi-arid upland savanna with rainy and dry seasons large canines sagittal crest Term Australopithecus bahrelghazali Definition Chad, Africa 3.5 - 3 million years ago furthest west australopithecine material known only from lower jaw, isolated upper premolar and a maxilla little support among researchers due to sample size Term Kenyanthropus platops Definition Kenya 3.5 - 3.2 million years ago mixture of advanced and primitive features flat human-like face appeared early in evolution alongside range of other facial forms, not outcome of linear progressive evolution Term Australopithecus africanus Definition South Africa 3.5 - 2.5 million years ago Gracile family globular cranium and slightly higher ratio of brain size to body size than Australopithecus afarensis teeth and face appear less primitive 2 species or one very sexually dimorphic proportion of arm length more apelike Term Australipithecus aethiopicus Definition East Africa 2.7 - 2.3 million years ago Robust family widely flaring zygomatic arches (bones that join cheeks to eyes) prominent sagittal crest - largest ever discovered in human lineage adaptation for heavy chewing 410 cc prognathic face black skull exhibits features more like afarensis Term Australopithecus boisei Definition East Africa 2.2 - 1.2 million years ago Robust family absolutely largest teeth extremely broad, short face relatively small brain pronounced sagittal crest and nuchal crests in large males skull and dental features adaptation for heavy chewing Term Australopithecus robustus Definition South Africa 2 - 1 million years ago Robust family short, broad face larger individuals have sagittal and nuchal crests very large cheeck teeth and thick enamel foot bones indicate bipedalism lived in seconary grasslands near rivers and wetlands Term Australopithecus garhli Definition Ethopia 2.5 million years ago postcanine dentition is at or beyond non-robust australopithecines cranial capacity 450 cc controversial species designation Term Homo habilis Definition East Africa 2.4-1.6 million years ago Three traits: 1. extended cranial capacity 590 - 710 cc 2. reduced postcanine tooth size 3. presence of precision grip provides anatomical basis for tool making may represent two species of Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis may have been partially arboreal may also have been sexually dimorphic Term Homo rudolfensis Definition East Africa 2.2 - 1.8 million years ago a slight supraorbital torus (brow ridge) much longer face; maxilla is squared off and more megadont postcanines very controversial larger and thicker enamel teeth than habilis flatter and broader face mreo modern like limb proportions Term Homo erectus Definition Africa 1.8- 1.5 million years ago China 500 - 200 thousand years ago Southeast Asia 1.8 mya - 50 kya long skull with thick cranial walls large prominent brow ridge with sulcus 1000 cc dentition identical to modern humans, cheeck teeth larger Early African specimens Homo ergaster Term Archaic Homo sapiens Definition Middle to Late Pleistocene 780 - 130 thousand years ago mixture of erectus and modern traits Homo antecessor 800 thousand years ago in Spain Homo heidelbergensis 600 - 125 thousand years ago in Africa, Asia, and Europe increased brain size 1283 cc taller leaner bodies gradual reduction in cranial and postcranial robusticity Term Neanderthals Definition Europe and West Asia 200 - 30 thousand years ago brain size 1600 cc extremely muscular by modern standards double arched browridges, broad noses 700 thousand years ago genetic separation Qafzeh Caves Israel - Neanderthals arrived after Homo sapiens in region indicating a period of co-existence buried people in graves with offerings Term Homo floriensis Definition 95 - 13 thousand years ago only about 1 m in height long arms, but bipedal small brain 417 cc human-like teeth, receeding forehead, no chin may be Homo sapiens with microencephaly Term Homo sapiens Definition 130 thousand years ago Qafseh and Skhul, Israel 90 kya Klasies River Mouth, South Africa 74-134 kya Omo-Kibish Ethiopia 130 kya more robust than modern humans small face, teeth and jaws small, cranial bones reduced, weak or absent browridges, distinct chin, cranial capacity 1330 cc mandible reduced Term Out of Africa Model Definition Homo erectus evolves in Africa and leaves spreads through Middle East and Asia evolves independently into Homo sapiens neanderthalensis modern humans evolve in Africa from Homo ergaster 120 kya leave Africa 100 kya and spread into Asia 90 kya, and Central Europe 40 kya 200 kya divergence from common ancestor of all modern populations = too young for multiregional hypothesis Term Multiregional Model Definition Modern humans evolved in parallel from earlier populations in Africa, Europe, and Asia some genetic intermixing among regions anatomical structures result of regional Homo erectus Chinese - flat faces, prominent cheek bones Japanese - robust cheekbones, prominent faces Neanderthals ancestors of modern Europeans Africa has greatest diversity of genetic material suggesting longer human history Term Primary refuse Definition items discarded at location of use Term Secondary refuse Definition items discarded away from location of use Term De facto refuse Definition result of site abandonment Term Vertical Excavation Definition Culture History Provenience = layers and levels Term Horizontal Excavation Definition reconstructing past life-ways Provenience = excavation units (1 X 1, 2 X 2) Term Stratigraphy Definition Relative Dating Method = Law of Superposition Term Cross-Dating Definition Relative Dating Method = layers that contain similar kinds of artifacts are likely to be of the same age i.e. Law of Association Term Seriation Definition Relative Dating Method = an ordering of things based on stylistic similarities and differences Term Lower Paleolithic / Old Stone Age Definition First evidence for stone tool use 2.5 mya - 150 kya Gona, Hadar region Ethiopia 2.5 million years ago who made the tools here? maybe Homo habilis or Australopithecines Term Oldowan Definition 2.5 - 1.5 million BP known mainly from East Africa first identified at Olduvai Gorge Bed 1 by Mary Leaky, now known from 2 million years BP at Gona by others also at Koobi Fora and East Turkana crude but efficient no standardized design evidence of change through time two theories of use hunting vs scavenging Term Scavenging Hypothesis Definition early Homo regularly scavenged rarely hunted and was occasionally preyed upon by carnivores evidence = Oldowan tools multi-purpose but not well suited for hunting taphonomic - tool but marks often overlay carnivore tooth marks Swartkrans - canine puncture marks on hominid skulls Term Home Bases Definition Swartkrans, FLK22 Olduvai - once though to be home bases where hunters brought back food DK, Olduvai - semi-circular stone ring once thought ot be hut or wind-break (produced by water transport) We now belived early Homo was mobile, home bases were scavenging sites Term Homo erectus Definition 1.8 million years ago key developments - first hunterers and experiences geographical range into colder climates human? we think so by 500 kBP hunted big game sophisticated tool industry - many types and design home bases - built houses assume provisioning controlled use of fire - could survive winters Term Homo erectus - Africa Definition Olorgesaille, Kenya 250 kya handaxes some raw material carried in, baboon remains with tool cut marks but no carnivore teeth marks Kilombe, Kenya handaxes at 700 kya Kalamba Falls, Tanzania preservation of plant remains (nut shells, seeds, fruits) but no animal bones (site specialization?) Term Homo erectus - Western Europe Definition Boxgrove, England 500 kya big game hunters, wooden spears, handaxes Shoningen, Germany 400 kya more spears Terra Amata France 300 kya oval-shaped dwellings 9X5 m post moulds, stone alignments floors with hearths Term Homo erectus - Asia Definition Zhoukoutien, China 400 kya controlled use of fire, allowed settlement in cold climate areas Homo erectus in East Asia used flake and chopper tools but no handaxes Term Acheulian Definition Technology of Homo erectus Acheulian Industry = handaxes, cleavers, scrapers, chisels, awes - first tool kit handaxes consistend in form "mental template" How successful? widespread throughout Africa, W. Europe, Central and S. Asia 1.5 mya - 150 kya with little change Term Levallois Definition Prepared Core Technology produces ready-to-use flake tools very sophisticated, difficult to execute Found in Europe, Near East, Africa transition between Homo erectus and archaic Homo sapiens 150 kBP considered mark of arrival of Homo sapiens Term Middle Paleolithic / Middle Stone Age Definition Transition from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens between 500 - 150 kBp Acheulian indsutry disappears 150 kBP 150 - 35 kBP world-wide climatic cooling and glacial advance (Wurm) Term Africa Definition Klasies River mouth in South Africa : MSA artifacts stone flake tools associated with archaic Homo sapiens but not Neanderthals 120 - 60 kBP MSA deposits at Klasies stratigraphically below LSA deposits: microliths, blade tools, and fully modern Homo sapiens Term Southwest Asia Definition Anatomical variation found in MP technology Tabun, Kebra Israel = cave sites with Neanderthal fossils and stone tools typical of MP 60 - 45 k BP Qafzeh Cave, Israel = MP stone tools with bones of modern Homo sapiens 90 k BP Term Europe = Neanderthals Definition Mousterian: stone tool associated with Neanderthals in Europe and Near East most tools made on flakes 63 "types" - spear points, hide scrapers, donticulates, burins task-specific tool kits suggestive of formalized seasonal round settlement pattern Term Neanderthal Hunters Definition skilled hunters often in co-ordinated groups hunted big game Pleistocene animals most sites have faunal remains of many species - generalized not specialized hunting Term Neanderthal - social life Definition Did Neanderthals live in hunting bands? La Chapelle aux Saints, France Shanidar Cave, Iraq evidence of food-sharing, aged individuals with severe osteoarthritis (provisioning, altruism) Term Mousterian Debate Definition Not all MP sites contain 63 tool types F. Bordes identified 4 distinct assemblages recurring in stratigraphic layers at Combe Grenal - 4 Neanderthal cultures L. Binford - functional interpretation of distinct tool kits Term Neanderthal Beliefs Definition La Ferrassie, France = cave site with "burials" in shallow graves Shanidar - "flower girl" Teshik Tash, Russia - "goat boy" Term End of Middle Paleolithic Definition Neanderthals faced rapid extinction in Europe beginning 40 k BP "out competed" by modern Homo sapiens who spread into Europe from Near East Term Upper Paleolithic Definition Sites distributed from West Europe to Kamchatka, Africa (LSA) Accelerating pace of cultural change Aurignacian 34-29 kBP Gravettian 29-22 kBP Salutrean 22-18 kBP Magdelenain 18-11 kBP Term Technology of Upper Paleolithic Definition Blade tools hallmark of UP efficient use of stone cores highly skilled but still no pottery bone and antler tools by Magdelenain Term Upper Paleolithic Economy Definition specialized big-game hunters, often focussing on one species Le Roc Solutre, France 100 thousand horses by number of individual specimens Predmost Czech - 900 mammoth bones Term Settlement Patterns of Upper Paleolithic Definition different types of sties, well-defined complex, seasonal round high population density in West Europe Territoriality - group hunting territories sedentism - Mexhirich Russia Mammoth bone huts 2-3 m diameter Term Art of the Upper Paleolithic Definition Wester Europe - Lascaux France - Lazaret = cave paintings Mobilary art = Venus figurines, Wilendorf Austria, Dalni Vestonice, Czech lion-headed man, Stadel Cave, Germany Stylistic markers of territory? Term Mesolithic Definition climate change = end of Pleistocene 12 kBP big-game extinctions major changes in availability of plants and animals response = Mesolithic 12-8 KBP the Broad Spectrum Revolution = trend away from specialization Term Technology of Mesolithic Definition Microliths in S.W. Asia with sickle polish ground stone tools - mortars, pestles mainly associated with plant processing wide variety of stone tool types related to diverse hunting and gathering activities long term storage long distance trade increase population lead to villages and complex social organizations Term Mesolithic in Europe Definition Ertebolle: late Scandinavian Mesolithic culture 7-5kBP developed maritime adaptations -water fowl, shellfish permanent coastal villages marine technology - nets, fish hooks, harpoons, dug-out canoes Term Natufian Definition Eastern Mediterranean - the Levant 12-8.5 kBP hunted gazelle also wild goats and cattle gathered wild pistachios, lentils, grasses many resources later domesticated set stage fro Neolithic Revolution Term Natufian Sites Definition Tell Mureybit, Syria - large site many mud-brick structures, permanent village Ain Mallaha, Israel - large village 200+ burials differential grave offerings = social inequality Jericho, Israel - lower strata contain shells, obsidian, salt = long distance trade Term Peopling of the New World Definition by 30,000 BP humans in East Asia at edge of New World D'uktai Culture, Siberia = dated 18 kBP, microblade technology may be ancestral to earliest New World cultures this measn that late UP people probably entered in far north where Bering Strait exists today Term Beringia Definition Regions includes N.E. Asia, Bering Strait and N.W. America (Alaska) Late Pleistocene Beingia = cold periods led to ice advance 75-45kBP and 20-14kBP ice advances led to lowered sea levels Beringia a solid land mass Term Routes Definition Alaska/Yukon cold but unglaciated most of Canada covered by ice Cordilleran in West, Laurentide in East until at least 10kBP Two Possible Routes: 1. Ice Free Corridor 2. Pacific Coastal Route Term Paleoindians Definition New World equivalent to UP cultures first cultures to move South of ice Clovis culture = 11.5 - 11kBP mammoth hunters. fluted spear points Folson culture = 11-10kBP bison hunters Clovis and Folsom terrestrial hunters assumes Ice Free Corridor Route Term Pre-Clovis Definition Meadowcroft rock shelter = oldest C14 dates 19 kBP, but modern flaura and fauna, possible charcoal contamination from natural coal deposits Monte Verde Chile camp site accepted by most to be 12.5 kBP coastal-routed? trans-pacific route? Term Neolithic Revolution Definition New Stone Age especially relevant to Near East, Europe, also S.Asia, S.E.Asia and Africa 12-5 kBP marked by transition from hunting and gathering to farming regular use of pottery ground stone tools no metallurgy Term Near East - Abu Hureyra, Syria Definition 12.5-12 kBP Natufian settlement 300-400 people gathered wild einkorn, rye, hunted gazelles cultivated and domestication of rye, einkorn, and lentils began 12kBP as climate became more arid site abandoned for 500 years Term Farming at Abu Hureyra Definition New village 11 kBP larger grain and lentil farming and rapid shift from gazelle hunting to herding domesticated sheep and goats village agglomerated mud-brick houses 162 burials women reveal arthritic knees, toes - kneeling to grind grains? Term Mesopotamia and Neolithic Revolution Definition Ali Kosh S.E. Iraw - slow but steady transition from hunting and gathering to farming, beginning 9.4 kBP sheep and goats enmer and barley 9kBP = domesticates 10% 8kBP = domesticates 50% Term Anatolia and Neolithic Revolution Definition Catal Huyuk central Turkey large village occupied 9-7.4 kBP growth based on control and regional trade of obsidian spectacular specialized craft production and ritual many shrines, cattle cult, goddess 7.4 kBP abruptly abandoned Term China and Neolithic Revolution Definition Pengtoushan, S. China middle Yangzi River 9 kBP large early Neolithic village with rice cultivation Yangshao culture N.E. China best known early Chinese farming culture 7-5kBP flood plain farming of foxtail millet, domesticated pigs, well-made pottery Term S.E. Asia and Japan during Neolithic Revolution Definition S.E. Asia early domesticates: taro, yams, millet; rice from China 6kBP? Spirit Cave Thailand possible domesticates by 11.5kBP (Gourds, water chestnut, peppers) Jomon culture, Japan - earliest pottery 12.5 kBP mainly hunterer-gatherers but possible root crop after 10kBP Term Pacific Settlements Definition Western Melanasia settled by 40kBP Islands of East Melanasia and West Polynesia (Fiji, Tonga) settled much later 3.6-3kBP by Lapita culture - involved open ocean voyaging Long distance voyaging - Easter Island (500 AD), Hawaii (600 AD) Term Africa - Neolithic Definition 8 kBP grains introduced to lower Egypt from Near East during prolonged dry period Cattle domesticated may have begun by 8kBP along southern Sahara Hunters became herders first by controlling migrations then by selective breeding Term Europe - Neolithic Definition Domesticated grains, animals, probably introduced into Southeast Europe from Near East by 8kBp 2k year long lag behind Near East domesticates Franchthi, Greece - cave with domesticated sheep and goats 8kBP Grotta dell'Uzzo, Sicily - wheat, barley, lentils 7.8kBP Term Central Europe - Neolithic Definition Bandkeramik culture middle Danube by 7kBP co-existing with South European Mesolithic groups small hamlets, small farming territories Famous for multi-family longhouses and for Linearbandkeramik pottery Term Mesoamerica - Neolithic Revolution Definition Tehuacan Valley, Central Mexico squash domesticated by 9kBP, maize by 7kBP, beans by 7-6kBP, = "The Three Sisters" villages do not appear until 5kBP 2-3 thousand years later mixed foraging and farming persisted for thousands of years Term Andean South America - Neolithic Revolution Definition 5 food domesticates = Llama, alpaca, guinea pigs, potato, quinoa Quinoa 5.4-5kBP Corrals with animal dung 4kBP Cotton also domesticated 5kBP Earliest villages on coast, Paloma 7.5kBP based on marine hunting and gathering Term North America South West Spread of Agriculture Definition Maize introduced 4-3.5kBP later beans, squash Early maize Chapalote hardy, low-yielding popcorn did not replace hunting diet Cross-breeding produced Maiz de Ocho 2.5kBP Addition of beans, squash lef to farming-based subsistence. Term Peublos Definition "Three Sisters Farming" lef to village in Southwest Anasazi 1-1450 AD of Colorado Plateau Early Anasazi lived in pithouse villages Later Anasazi after 800 AD lived in above-ground peublos Included Mesa Verde "cliff dwellers" and Chaco Canyon complex society Term Eastern North America - Spread of Agriculture Definition Late archaic people began cultivating plants by 3.5kBP Maize introduced from plains by 1 AD Maiz de Ocho by 800 AD Beans by 1000 AD Term Hopewell Definition Middle Woodland Culture 2.2-1.6kBP centered in South Ohio, Illinois Economy based on hunting and gathering and local cultigens Huge trade network Famous for mounds, earthworks, and artstyle Term Oasis Theory Definition Proposed catastrophic climatic change, environment dessication at end of Pleistocene in Near East Livable areas shrunk to oases in which humans "naturally" domesticated plants and animals Term Nuclear Zone Theory Definition Climate change not so bad; increasing familiarity with new species led to domestication in areas of abundance. Term Marginal Zone Theory Definition Population in nuclear zones spilled over into marginal zones, where people domesticated plants and animals to increase their food supplies Term Social Theory Definition Mesolithic population growth and villages led hunter-gatherer local groups to form alliances "social cost" of alliances promoted domestication Term Mississippian Chiefdoms Definition Complex chiefdoms 1000-1600 AD Based on intensive maize/bean flood plain farming and hunting and gathering Ideology linked to religious cults Hereditary chiefs as warrior/priests Term Cahokia Definition Powerful Mississippian Chiefdom 1000-1250 AD Huge mound and plaza complex Surrounded by residential neighbourhoods Population estimate 16k Elite residence topped many mounds Monks Mound largest feature in North America +600m3 earth 370k workdays to complete Term Mound 72 Definition Burial mound exemplifies disparities in wealth and power Burial of adult male with 20k shell beads, 800 arrow heads, copper and mica sheets, 4 males decapitated, hands cut off, 50 young adult women strangled Term Early European Chiefdoms Definition Varna, Bulgaria = cemetary with graves containing gold and copper ornaments oldest major gold assemblage 6.6-6.2kBP copper mined in Balkans, traded long distances among East European elites Metallurgy may have developed for social reasons - display of wealth by chiefs Term Bronze Age and Iron Age Definition latter two stages of Thomsen's Three Age system for relative dating of European prehistory Bronze Age - 4-2.5kBP characterized by bronze metallurgy, chiefdoms, long-distance trade, religious cults (stonehenge) and votive hoards Iron Age - 3-2kBP warrior chiefdoms subdued by Roman conquests Term Great Zimbabwe Definition Bantu-speaking Shona Chiefdom 950-1450 AD cattle herders, farmers Gained wealth and power as middle-men in gold and ivory trade between southern African interior and coast Rulers raised armies, extracted tribute from surrounding chiefdoms Early state? Term Characteristics of Civilization Definition 1. Urbanization 2. Centralized economies based on tribute and taxation 3. Writing systems 4. 3-tier settlement hierarchy 5. full-time craft specialization 6. All-embracing state religion Term Theories of Urban Revolution Definition Population pressure = unconstrained human population growth led to need for permanent leadership (resource managers) Irrigation = "hydraulic civilizations" support higher population densities, labour intensive irrigation systems controlled and maintained by the state. Warfare = fighting over land as population grows state evolves from military build-up Power Struggle = three sources of power: economic, ideological, political. State formation results from competition among chiefs to harness three sources of power and expand their domain. Term Eridu, Uruk Definition Southern Mesopotamia (Sumer), early farming villages by 7.4kBp Ubaid period Eridu = Ubaid town with temple complex 6.7kBP Sumerian farming required irrigation temple co-ordinated construction Uruk first city 5.5kBP 10k people 4.7kBP 50K people Term Sumeria Definition Uruk was first but not only city Dominated by huge temple, housing administrators, craft-specialists Clay tablet writing, later cuneiform - early record keeping Sumerian civilization based on long distance trade, permitted by agricultural surplus Term Akkadian State Definition 2900-2371 BC Mesopotamia Organized under competing city-states 2371 BC brought under rule by Sargon of Akkad Series of 5 Akkadian kings had hegemony over Mesopotamia, established trade with Arabia, Anatolia, Indus Valley Term Egypt Definition Predynastic Egypt (before 5.1kBP) small competing chiefdoms in Lower and Upper Egypt Unification achieved at Herakonpolis ny Narmer in 3100 BC - first nation-state State divided into districts ruled by nobility who supported the Pharoah Chronology Archaic Egypt = 3100-2575 BC early hieroglyphs, first pharaoh Old Kingdom = 2572-2180 BC capital at Memphis, time of the Pyramids Middle Kingdom = 2180-1640 BC capital at Thebes, practice of mummification New Kingdom = 1530-1070 BC Karnak, Luxor, Valley of the Kings Term Indus Valley Definition Flourished 2400-1800 BC Pakistan Organized around 3 main cities: Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Ganwejwala Thought to be unified state because of cultural uniformity over large area All cities and towns laid out according to same plan famous for sewage system and Great Bath Term Mohenjo-Daro Definition Fortified city population 25k Formalized town planning Two parts of city = citadel, lower town All public buildings in citadel - Great Bath, Granary, College, Assembly Hall Lower town carefully laid out craft neighbourhoods Term Indus Class or Caste? Definition Evidence of Caste: 1. Emphasis on bathing (purification) 2. Formal layout of cities - occupational groups separate 3. Absence of accumulated wealth - important to class but not to caste Term Southeast Asia - Angkor Wat Definition Angkor state unified much of Southeast Asia 802-1430 AD, under Khmer Kings Angkor Wat built 1113-1117 AD as shrine to god Vishnu Largest building on earth - built as representation of Hindu universe - home of Khmer god-king Term China - Shang Dynasty Definition Shang dynasty North China 1766-1122 BC emerged as a result of warfare, conquest of neighbouring chiefdoms Importance of warfare seen in hang tu (rammed earth fortifications) Ancestor worship, oracle bones, divination, famous for bronzes, royal tombs Term Minoans and Mycaneans Definition Minoan Crete 2000-1450 BC no cities or temples, "Palace-states" state formation fueled by long distance trade Mycanean Greece 1600-1150 BC Also based on trade famous for gold work and writing (Linear A and B) Term Mesoamerica - Olmec Definition Olmec 1200-400 BC Southern Gulf Coast Lowlands Oldest New World civilization Theocracy, ceremonial centers, La Venta, San Lorenzo Feature colossal heads, jaguar motif Olmec state followed spread of maize from highlands to lowlands 1200 BC Sudden collapse 400 BC monuments defaced Term Mayan civilization Definition Classic Maya 200 BC - 900 AD Origins evolved following Olmec collapse Highland trade spurred rise of competing urban centers - Tikal, Uxmal, Copan, Palenque Maya achievements = hieroglyphs, 365-day calendar, art and architectures, craft specialization Term Teotihuacan Definition 200 BC - 800 AD Valley of Mexico Grew from small town to 25k largest city in New World Key factors: local obsidian, irrigation, trade.warfare with Maya, Zapotec, religion Massive public architecture: Pyramids of the Sun, Moon, Citadel, Street of the Dead Term Aztecs Definition Formed huge but decentralized empire in highland Mexico by 1325 AD Main urban center Tenochtitlan 200k pop. cross-cut by canals 70 residential wards, magnificent temples Empire built on ruthless military conquest fueled by human sacrifice and cannibalism Spanish contact 1519, collapse 1521 Term Andean Empire, The Inca Definition Andean state formed 500 Ad Inca last of Andean states, but largeset empire began 1438 AD with series of military conquests Highly centralized empire Capital at Cuzco religious center Machu Pichu 1532 Inca standing army 10k defeated by 100 conquistadores Term Phonology Definition </ Study of sounds and how they are structured