[image]

coronal=frontal

sagital= median

axial=transverse

one more plane= oblique, at any other angle

[image]

Serous membrane or serosa

Thin, double-layered membranes

• Parietal serosa lines internal body cavity walls • Visceral serosa covers internal organs (viscera)

– Layers separated by slit-like cavity filled with serous fluid • Fluid secreted by both layers of membrane

• Allows the organs inside to slide without friction

Serous Membrane Names

Pericardium surrounds the Heart

Pleurae surrounds the Lungs

Peritoneumsurrounds the Abdominopelvic Cavity

abdomino pelvic regions

[image]

4 Functions of the Plasma Membrane

1. Physicalisolation

 Barrier

2. Regulatesexchangewithenvironment

 Ions and nutrients enter

 Wastes eliminated and cellular products released

3. Monitorstheenvironment  Extracellular fluid composition  Chemical signals

4. Structuralsupport

 Anchors cells and tissues

Membrane Lipids

types

Double layer of phospholipid molecules (75%)

 Integral proteins

 Within the membrane

 Peripheral proteins

 Bound to inner or outer surface of the membrane

Membrane Proteins: 6 functions

Anchoring proteins (stabilizers)

Attach to inside or outside structures

Recognition proteins (identifiers)

Label cells as normal or abnormal

Enzymes

Catalyze reactions

Receptor proteins

Bind and respond to ligands (ions, hormones)

Carrier proteins

Transport specific solutes through membrane

Channels

Regulate water flow and solutes through membrane

 Membrane Carbohydrates

 Proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and glycolipids

 Extend outside cell membrane

 Form sticky “sugar coat” (glycocalyx)

 Functions of the glycocalyx

 Lubrication and protection

 Anchoring and locomotion

 Specificity in binding (receptors)  Recognition (immune response)

[image]

• Tight junctions

• Impermeable

• Encircles the cell

• Desmosomes

• Anchors cells together

• Act like rivots

• Molecular velcro

• Gap junctions

• Communicating junctions

• Allows ions and small molecules to

Pass from cell to cell 

• Imperative to heart cells

Selective permeability restricts materials based on

Size

 Electrical charge  Molecular shape  Lipid solubility

Two ways substances cross membranes and the two sub categories of each

I. Passive processes

 No cellular energy (ATP) required

 Substance moves down its concentration gradient 

A. Diffusion

1. Simple diffusion

2. Carrier- and channel-mediated facilitated diffusion

3. Osmosis

B. Filtration

Usually across capillary walls (major force: pumping of the heart)

II. Active processes

 Energy (ATP) required

 Occurs only in living cell membranes 

A Active transport

1. Primary active transport

2. Secondary active transport

B Vesicular transport

1. Endocytosis (into cell)

2. Exocytosis (out of cell)

Passive Processes: Diffusion

how does it work and when will molecules passively diffuse?

Collisions cause molecules to move down or with their concentration gradient

 Difference in concentration between two areas

Speed influenced by molecule size and temperature Molecules will passively diffuse through

membrane if:

1. It is lipid soluble, or

2. Smallenoughtopass

through membrane channels, or

3. Assistedbycarriermolecule

passive simple diffusion

what are good examples

[image]

Certain lipophobic (dislike lipids) molecules (e.g., glucose, amino acids, and ions) transported passively by

 Binding to protein carriers

Passive Processes A2: Channel- Mediated Facilitated Diffusion 

Passive Processes A3: Osmosis

what do the particles pass through?

what are the two types?

Hydrostatic pressure/Osmotic pressure 

Water moves by osmosis until.....

hydrostatic pressure (back pressure of water on membrane)

And

osmotic pressure (tendency of water to move into cell by osmosis)

Equalize

Tonicity

what is it and what are the 3 types

[image]

Tonicity: Ability of solution to alter cell's water volume

 Isotonic: Solution with same non-penetrating solute concentration as cytosol

 Hypertonic: Solution with higher non-penetrating solute concentration than cytosol

 Hypotonic: Solution with lower non-penetrating solute concentration than cytosol

Osmolarity vs Tonicity 

Osmolarity and tonicity are not the same.  Osmolarity

 total solute concentration

 Tonicity: ability of solution to alter cell's water

volume

1. Soluteconcentration

2. Solutepermeabilityofplasmamembrane

 Solute too large for channels

 Solute not lipid soluble

 Solute not able to move down concentration gradient

Active Processes: B. Vesicular Transport

two major types one with:

3 kinds & short description

1. Endocytosis: transport into the cell

 Pinocytosis

 Endosomes “drink” extracellular fluid

[image]

 Pseudopodia (psuedo- = false, pod- = foot)  Engulf large objects in phagosomes

2. Exocytosis: transport out of the cell

 Is the reverse of endocytosis

Resting membrane potential (RMP)

 Produced by separation of oppositely charged

particles (voltage) across membrane in all cells  Cells described as polarized

 Voltage (electrical potential energy) only at membrane

 Ranges from –50 to –100 mV in different cells – "–" indicates inside negative relative to outside

 In many cells Na+ affects RMP

 Attracted into cell due to negative charge 

RMP to –70 mV

 Membrane more permeable to K+ than Na+,

so K+ primary influence on RMP

 Cl– does not influence RMP

— concentration and electrical gradients exactly balanced

key role of K+ in generating the resting membrane potential

3 steps

Na+-K+ pump continuously ejects 3Na+ from

cell and carries 2K+ in

Cytosol (fluid)

levels of

potassium /sodium

protein

carbohydrate /amino acids and fat

 Dissolved materials:

– nutrients, ions, proteins, and waste products  High potassium/low sodium

 High protein

 High carbohydrate/low amino acid and fat

 Perinuclear space 

 Between the two layers of the nuclear envelope

 Contents of the Nucleus 

 DNA

 All information to build and run organisms  Nucleoplasm

 Fluid containing ions, enzymes, nucleotides, and some RNA

 Nuclear matrix

 Support filaments 

Nucleolus

 Are related to protein production 

 Are made of RNA, enzymes, and histones  Synthesize rRNA and ribosomal subunits

Chromatin 

 Loosely coiled DNA (cells not dividing)

Cell Cycle diagram

I. Meiosis - cell division producing gametes

(sexual cells, half of the chromosomes)

II. Mitotic cell division - produces clones (I reproduce myself)

Atrophy vs Hypetrophy, hyperplasia, dysplasia

[image][image] 

Atrophy:

 Decrease in cell size

 (muscle tissue, broken immobilized arm in a cast)  Hypetrophy

 Increase in cell size

 (muscle tissue, weight training)

 Hyperplasia

 Increased rate of reproduction, excessive cell

reproduction

 Increase in size

 Milk-producing glands of the female breast during pregnancy

 Dysplasia

 Abnormal shape, size, organization of

cells in a tissue

 Tumour or neoplasm

 Necrosis: 

 Injury or pathological condition

 Often nearby cells die as well

 Triggering an immune response

 Resulting inflammation, which removes the debris

Apoptosis 

 Apoptosis

 Non-pathological cell death, programmed cell

death

 Elimination of cells that are no longer needed, injured, aged, stressed

Malignant tumour and the Development of Cancer

 Spreads into surrounding tissues (invasion)  Starts new tumours (metastasis)

cancer developement

 1. Abnormal cell

2. Primary tumour

3. Metastasis

4. Secondary tumour

Cancers are named for tissue of origin 

Carcinoma: epithelial tissue

• Lymphoma: lymph nodes

• Sarcoma: bone

what does a Malignant tumor do

Replaces functional tissue in vital organs – (previous photo of the kidney tumor)

 Steal nutrients from the body

 Weaken immunity >> opening door for

opportunistic infection

 Invade blood vessels, lung tissue, brain tissue

– Haemorrhage (bleeding), pulmonary collapse, coma

 Death usually results from the metastasis, not from the original tumor.

– Epithelial tissue • Covers

– Connective tissue • Supports

– Muscle tissue • Produces movement

– Nervous tissue • Controls

[image]

Epithelium two main types

and 6 functions

Form boundaries

• Two main types (by location)

– Covering and lining epithelia

• On external and internal surfaces

– Glandular epithelia

• Secretory tissue in glands

• Functions

– Protection

– Absorption

– Filtration

– Excretion

– Secretion

– Sensoryreception

Five Characteristics of Epithelial Tissues

1 Polarity

Apical surface vs  Basal surface 

2 Specialized contacts

– Covering and lining epithelial tissues fit closely together

• Form continuous sheets

• Lateral contacts bind adjacent cells

3 Supported by connective tissues

– Reticularlamina

• Deep to basal lamina

• Network of collagen fibers

– Basement membrane

• Basal lamina + reticular lamina

• Resists stretching and tearing

4 Avascular, but innervated

No blood vessels Supplied by nerve fibres

5 Can regenerate

– Highregenerativecapacity 

– If adequate nutrients are present they can replace lost cells by cell division

 Classification of Epithelial Tissue

shape: list

layers: list and describe major roles

• All epithelial tissues have two names

– One indicates number of cell layers

• Simple epithelia = single layer of cells

-absorption 

-secretion

-filtration

-very thin

• Stratified epithelia = two or more layers of cells – Shape can change in different layers

-protection is major role

– Epithelia classified by cell shape in apical layer

– One indicates shape of cells

• Squamous

• Cuboidal

• Columnar

simple squamous epithelium 

function

location

two specific names from their location

 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

• Single layer of cubelike cells • Secretion

• Absorption

• Forms walls of smallest ducts

of glands and many kidney tubules

 Simple Columnar Epitheliu

• Single layer of tall, closely packed cells

• Absorption

• Secretion

• Nonciliated type lines most of the digestive tract, gallbladder, and excretory ducts of some glands; ciliated variety lines small bronchi, uterine tubes, and some regions of the uterus.

  Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Cells vary in height

– Cell nuclei at different levels

– Although it appears stratified it’s not!

– Secretion

– Absorption

Regenerate from below

– Basal cells divide, cells migrate to surface

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium 

Quite rare

Found in some sweat and mammary glands Typically two cell layers thick

Stratified Columnar Epithelium 

Limited distribution in body

• Small amounts in pharynx, male urethra, and lining some glandular ducts

• Also occurs at transition areas between two other types of epithelia

• Only apical layer columnar

 Transitional Epithel 

endocrine glands

define

Ductless glands

– Secretions not released into a duct

• Secrete (by exocytosis) hormones that travel through lymph or blood to their specific target organs

• Target organs respond in some characteristic way

define Exocrine Glands

is it more or less numerous than endocrine glands

give 4 examples 

• Secretions released onto body surfaces (skin) or into body cavities

• More numerous than endocrine glands

• Secrete products into ducts

   • Examples include mucous, sweat, oil, and salivary glands

 Multicellular Exocrine Gland

• Multicellular exocrine glands are composed of a duct and a secretory unit

• Usually surrounded by supportive connective tissue

– Supplies blood and nerve fibers

– Extends into and divides gland into lobes

 Connective Tissue

• 4 Main Classes?

• Major Functions?

4 Main Classes

1. Connective tissue proper

2. Cartilage

3. Bone

4. Blood

Major Functions

– Binding and support

– Protecting

– Insulating

– Storingreservefuel

– Transportingsubstances(blood)

Connective Tissue Characteristics

 3 common characteristics make connective tissues different from other primary tissues!

1 Common tissue origin (an embryonic tissue: mesenchyme)

2 Have varying degrees of vascularity (blood vessels); (cartilage: none)

3 Have extracellular matrix

• Connective tissue not composed mainly of cells

• Largely nonliving extracellular matrix separates cells

– So can bear weight, withstand tension, endure abuse

Connective Tissue  Structural Elements?

• 3 elements

•1 Ground substance unstructured, fills space

• 2Fibers (3) provide support

• Collagen

• Elastic tissue • Reticular

• 3 Cells

• “Blast” immature, mitotically active (eg, fibroblast, chondroblast, osteoblast)

• “Cyte” mature, maintain matrix (eg, chondrocyte, osteocyte)

• Other (eg, fat cells, white blood cells)

Composition and arrangement varies in different connective tissues

 Connective Tissue Proper

• Two subclasses

• Two subclasses

1– Loose connective tissues • Areolar

• Adipose • Reticular

2– Dense connective tissues (also called fibrous connective tissues)

• Dense regular

 • Dense irregular

• Elastic

 connective tissue

Loose: Areolar 

connective tissue

Loose: Adipose

  [image]

 Connective Tissue: Cartilage

describe

what are three types of cartilage

• Chondroblastsandchondrocytes

• Tough yet flexible

• Lacks nerve fibers

• Up to 80% water - can rebound after compression

• Avascular

– Receives nutrients from membrane surrounding it • Perichondrium

• 3 types of cartilage:

– Hyaline cartilage

– Elastic cartilage

- fibrocartilage

fibrocartilage

description

function

location

 Nervous Tissue

• Main component of nervous system – Brain, spinal cord, nerves

– Regulates and controls body functions

• Neurons

– Specialized nerve cells that generate and conduct nerve

impulses

• Neuroglia

– Supporting cells that support, insulate, and protect neurons[image]

all called mucosae are membranes that line body cavities open to the esterior

Moist membranes bathed by secretions

• Epithelial sheet lies over layer

of connective tissue

called lamina propria

• May secrete mucus

Serous Membranes

describe and 3 kinds

• Serosae—found in closed ventral body cavity

• Simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium) resting on thin areolar

connective tissue

• Parietal serosae line internal body cavity walls

• Visceral serosae cover internal organs

 Tissue Repair

3 steps

[image][image]

[image]

 Development of the 4 primary Tissues 

 How Tissues Age

• Normally function well through youth and middle age if adequate diet, circulation, and infrequent wounds and infections

• Epithelia becomes thinner with increasing age so more easily breached

• Tissue repair is less efficient

• Bone, muscle and nervous tissues begin to

atrophy

• DNA mutations possibleincreased cancer risk

Skeletal cartilage

how does water affect it?

how many blood vessels or nerves?

what surrounds it, why?

 [image]

Water lends resiliency

Contains no blood vessels or nerves

Perichondrium surrounds

 Dense connective tissue girdle

– Contains blood vessels for nutrient delivery 

– Resists outward expansion

 Growth of Cartilage

• Appositional growth vs Interstitial growth

 Appositional growth

– Cells secrete matrix against external face of

existing cartilage

• Interstitial growth

– Chondrocytes divide and secrete new matrix,

expanding cartilage from within

• Calcification of cartilage

– Occurs during normal bone growth

how many bones in the skeleton

what are the two groups of bones

206

 – Axial skeleton

• Long axis of body

• Skull, vertebral column, rib cage

– Appendicular skeleton

• Bones of upper and lower limbs

• Girdles attaching limbs to axial skeleton

structure of short irregular and flat bones 

5 elements 

gross anatomy

sponge vs compact bone

bone markings

projections vsy depressions and openings

[image]

[image]

[image]

1 osteogenic cells- stem cell

2 osterblasts- matrix synthecizing cell, responsible or bone growth

3osteocytes-mature bone cell that monitors and maintains the mineralized bone matric

4osteoclasts- bone reabsorbing cell

5bone lining cells

functionally they are tiny weight bearing pillars

system of interconnecting cannals in the microscopic structure of adult compact bone 

microscopic anatomy of compact bone

[image]

[image]

fyi

endosteum= connective tissue membrane covering internal bone surfaces 

ossification

3 types/stages

formation of bony skeleton 

endochondral ossification vs intramembranous ossification

how they form

and what they form

and what those bones are called