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Details Title: AMH 2010 Exam 1 Description: George Long Human Species Exam 1 Total Flash Cards: 158 Created: 09/17/2007 15:58:00	To study from this set of flash cards, or to create your own your own study flash cards, register HERE. If you are already a registered user, CLICK HERE.
Cards Term  How did humans dominate the planet?  Answer lies in understanding: Definition  1) human biology – in an evolutionary perspective  2) role of culture Term Culture Definition  “Strategy” - humans adapt to natural environment.  Includes technologies, subsistence patterns, religion, marriage and family.  Culture is learned (not biologically determined) Term Evolution Definition  Change in genetic makeup  Studied on two levels Term – Microevolution Definition  Genetic alterations within population Term – Macroevolution Definition Genetic change resulting in new species Term Culture and Evolution Definition  Humans are result of “biocultural evolution”  Culture and biology interacted over time Term  Anthropology studies: Definition  1) biological aspects of humans  2) the role of cultural factors. Term What is Anthropology? Definition study of humankind  (Greek “anthropos” for “humans”) Term subfields of Anthropology Definition Cultural Anthropology  Or “social anthropology” Applied Anthropology Physical Anthropology Paleoanthropology Primatology Osteology Paleopathology Forensic anthropology Term Cultural Anthropology  Or “social anthropology” Definition  Studies all aspects of human behavior Term  Ethnographers Definition describes one particular group of human behavior Term Ethnology Definition compares numerous cultures Term Applied Anthropology Definition  Many subfields have practical applications  Most work outside of university  Includes Cultural, Archaeology, Physical Archaeology  Studies and interprets material remains  Information from artifacts and material culture Term Linguistic Anthropology Definition  This field studies the origin of language and human speech Term Physical Anthropology Definition  The study of “human biology” within the framework of evolution.  And the interaction between biology and culture Several subfields in this Term Paleoanthropology Definition  the study of human evolution  early hominids. Term Primatology Definition  Study of nonhuman primates Term Osteology Definition  Studies skeletons  Often focuses on past groups. Term Paleopathology Definition  Subdivision of osteology  Study of disease and injury of human skeletal remains Term Forensic anthropology Definition  Applying anthropology to legal matters  Often identify skeletal remains Term  Science Definition process of explaining and understanding phenomena through observations and experimentation.  Involves an “empirical” approach Term  Empirical Definition relying on experiment or observation Term  Empirical Definition relying on experiment or observation Term Scientific Method Definition  Biological anthropologist do scientific research and must adhere to the Term Scientific Method (A,B,C) Definition  A) Problem is identified  B) Hypothesis (provisional explanation) is tested through – 1) collection of data (facts – scientific information) – 2) analysis of data  C) If hypothesis is verified, it becomes a theory Term  Theory Definition statement of scientific relationships or principles that has been at least partially verified through rigorous testing Term  Scientific methodology Definition an exercise in rational thought and critical thinking Term Critical Thinking Definition  Skills enable people to: – Evaluate, compare, analyze, critique, and synthesize information Term Evolution and Physical Anthropology Definition  Understanding the details of this processes is crucial  And it is beneficial to know how the mechanics of the process came to be discovered  Including the social and political context influencing the discovery Term Brief History of Evolutionary Thought Definition  Scientific knowledge is usually gained by a series of small steps  It is informative to examine the development of ideas that led Charles Darwin and Russel Wallace to independently develop the theory of this by natural selection Term World View of Middle Ages Definition  Christian beliefs - life as first created  1) Fixity of species  2) Brief existence of earth Term Scientific Revolution Definition  Medieval beliefs upset  much scientific activity  Investigate nature as mechanism  (not supernatural) Term Precursors to the Theory of Evolutions Definition  Early naturalists  List and describe plants and animals  Impressed with diversity  First steps to evolutionary theory Term John Ray Definition  Defined species  Believed in fixity of species Term Carolus Linnaeus Definition  Classification plants and animals  Systema Naturae  Basis of taxonomy today  “Homo sapiens” Term Jean-Baptiste Lamarck Definition  First attempt to explain evolution  Inheritance of acquired characteristics  Trait acquired in lifetime passed to offspring  Not genetically correct but recognized importance of environment Term CHARLES DARWIN Definition  Insight from finches - beak structure  From common ancestor on mainland (South America)  Adapted to different islands  Developed concept “natural selection” Term Natural Selection Definition  “Selection” key to evolution  “Individuals” with favorable variation survive and reproduce Term Some of the processes: Selection Definition  Variation with species  Favorable traits more offspring reproductive success  Later generations become distinct as new species  Geological isolation and  Different selective pressures important Term Individuals Definition  natural selection operates on individuals  the population evolves  (populations changes over time) Term Natural Selection in Action Definition Peppered Moths Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria Term Peppered Moths Definition in England best documented modern example  Lighter gray ones camouflaged, and darker ones eaten Term Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria Definition  Antibiotics introduced 1940s  Bacteria have genetic variation  Surviving bacteria pass on resistance  Bacteria don’t respond to antibiotics Term mechanisms of natural section Definition  1) Trait must be inherited  2) Variation in necessary  3) Fitness is relative to environment  measured by reproductive success Term Constraints on 19th Century Evolutionary Theory Definition  Darwin and others did not know source of variation  Some interest in Lamarck’s ideas  Mechanism of transmitting traits not understood  “Blending” of traits popular misconception Term Genetics Definition – The study of how traits transmitted from one generation to next – Crucial to understanding process of evolution – Most Knowledge in last 50 years Term The Cell Definition  Multicellular organism made of  Complex eukaryotic cells  Contain nucleus with chromosomes Term Nucleus Definition  Contains two nucleic acids – with genetic information Term Types of Cells  Two types Definition Somatic cells Gametes Term Somatic cells Definition – Body tissue Term Gametes Definition – Sex cells (sperm or ova) – Reproduction Term DNA Structure Definition  Properties discovered in 1953  DNA is a double-stranded molecule  Two chains of nucleotides Term Nucleotide Definition  Basic units of DNA molecule Term Genes Definition segments of DNA  Sequence of DNA bases Term Chromosomes Definition structure composed of DNA  Humans have 46 (23 pairs) Term 2 Chromosome types Definition Autosomes Sex chromosomes Term Autosomes Definition Govern physical characteristics except – primary sex determination Term Sex chromosomes Definition  Females - XX sex chromosomes  Males - XY sex chromosomes Term Protein Synthesis Definition  DNA controls this  Proteins are composed of amino acid molecules  Some structural  Others functional (enzymes and hormones) Term Cell Division Definition  Mitosis  Meiosis Term MITOSIS Definition  Somatic cells divide during growth and repair  the “simple cell division” of somatic cells Term MEIOSIS Definition  Sex cells  Reduction of chromosomes critical  produces egg or sperm cells by two divisions  Results in cells with only 23 (half) chromosomes  These unite Term The Evolutionary Significance of Meiosis Definition  occurs in all sexually reproducing animals  Highly important evolutionary innovation  Increases genetic variation quickly  Contributes to role of natural selection Term New Frontiers Definition  Since discovery of DNA structure  Field of genetics has revolutionized biological science Term Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Definition  Now use small samples  Make copies of a DNA segment  Use polymerase enzyme to make copies of DNA Term DNA “Fingerprinting” Definition  Use multiplied copies (from PCR)  DNA sequence patterns unique to individuals  Used by forensic scientists Crime scenes Term Recombinant DNA Definition  Transfers genes from cells  from one species into another species Term Cloning Definition  Making a genetically identical organism  (for example by inserting a nucleus into an egg) Term Human Genome Project Definition  International effort to sequence the entire human genome Term Genome Definition genetic makeup of an individual or species Term Human Genes Definition  Comprising 25 to 30,000 genes  Years away from knowing the functions of all of the DNA segments Term Genetic Principles Discovered by Gregor Mendel Definition  Experimenting with garden pea traits  Involved observation and experimentation  Discovered fundamental principles of how traits inherited  Results were empirical basis for his theories  Discovered fundamental principles of how traits transmitted Term Segregation Definition  Mendel’s “First principle of inheritance”  Different expression of same trait controlled by discrete units Term Dominance and Recessiveness Definition Mendel recognized that traits not expressed are still present Term Recessive Definition trait seemed lost (masked) Term Dominant Definition expressed trait Term Gene Definition segment of DNA Term Locus Definition location of gene on chromosome Term Alleles Definition variation or alternate forms of genes at same locus Term Homozygous Definition two copies of same allele Term Heterozygous Definition two different alleles at locus Term Genotype Definition actual genetic makeup Term Phenotype Definition observed characteristic Term Punnet Square Definition  Represents different ways alleles combined  The possible genotypes and phenotypes Term Independent Assortment Definition  Mendel’s second principle of inheritance  Principle of independent assortment  No relationship between two traits Term Mendelian Inheritance in Humans Definition  Mendelian traits or “discrete traits”  Controlled by alleles at one genetic locus  Examples include ABO blood system Term ABO blood group systems Definition  Governed by three alleles A, B, and O in population  Individual has two  “ABO” refers to antigens (large molecule) on red blood cells Term Four blood types Definition  Type A  Type B  Type AB  Type 0 = recessive Term Codominance Definition  Two different alleles  but one cannot mask the other  Blood type AB- example  Both are expressed Term Misconceptions Regarding Dominance and Recessiveness Definition  Recessive  Once incorrectly thought that recessive alleles had no effect  Can now see effects on biochemical level  Dominance incorrectly seen as  “stronger” or “better” (no!)  or more common in populations (no!) Term Polygenic Inheritance Definition  “Polygenic” or continuous traits  Influenced by alleles at two or more loci  Each contributing to phenotype Term Polygenic traits Definition more readily observable variation in humans Term Continuous Definition like height of population uninterrupted from shortest to tallest Term Genetic and Environmental Factors Definition  Genotype sets limits  But phenotype interacts with environment  Many polygenic traits obviously influenced by environment  For example adult stature affected by nutrition Term Mitochondrial Inheritance Definition  Much recent attention  Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)  (Distinct from DNA in nuclei)  Inherited only from mother  Mutation rates used for constructing relationships Term Modern Evolutionary Theory Definition  In past rival viewpoints emphasized either  “mutation” or “natural selection”  as prime mover of evolutionary change Term “Modern synthesis” Definition  Mid 20th century combines approaches  Mutation and natural selection both required  Evolution two stages  1) Production and redistribution of variation  2) Natural selection acting on this variation Term DEFINITION OF EVOLUTION Definition  Modern genetic perspective  A change in allele frequencies from one generation to the next Term Microevolution Definition Short-term effects of evolution Term Macroevolution Definition long-term effects of evolution Term Mutation Definition the only way new variations produced  First stage in evolutionary process. Term Gene Flow Definition the exchange of alleles between populations Term Genetic Drift Definition  Chance (random) factor in evolution  Tied to small population size Term Founder Effect Definition  A type of genetic drift  Small migrant band colonizes new region  A rare allele in larger parent population can  become relatively common in small population Term Microevolutionary Changes Definition  Gene flow and genetic drift  Short-term changes  For Long-term evolutionary changes  Natural selection would likely play major role  (with other forces) Term Forces of Evolution Definition  Natural Selection  Mutation  Gene flow  Genetic drift Term Recombination Definition  Genetic information reshuffled every generation  Produces genetic combinations which natural selection can act upon Term Natural Selection Acts on Variation Definition provides directional change  in allele frequency relative to specific environmental factors  or adaptation to selective pressures Term Sickle-cell Allele Definition  Best documented example of natural selection in humans  West and Central Africa  Parts of Greece and India  Geographic correlated with Malaria Term Heterozygous individuals Definition has greater resistance to Malaria than homozygous “normals” Term Directional Trends Definition  Evolution is a change in allele frequency in a “population” from one generations to the next  (gene flow and drift also produces change)  “Directional” evolutionary trends could only be sustained by “natural selection” Term Evolutionary Change Definition  Natural selection operator by differential reproduction  Individuals with particular allele (adaptive-favorable) produce more offspring  Frequency of the allele increases from generation to generation  Results is significant evolutionary change over hundreds of generations Term Levels of Evolutionary Process Definition  The evolutionary factors and levels of organization in five evolutionary processes Term Evolutionary Factors and/or forces and processes Definition  Mutation  Recombination  Natural Selection  Drift and gene flow Term 1) DNA Level  Mutation is the evolutionary factor 2) Chromosome Level  Mutation is the evolutionary factor 3) Cell Level  Recombination is the evolutionary factor  (sex cells only) 4) Organism (Individual)  Definition These factors/forces or processes work on different levels Term Primates As Mammals  A mammalian order Evolutionary Trends Definition  Primates defined by “evolutionary trends”  Traits that characterize the entire order Term 1) Limbs and Locomotion Definition  Tendency towards erect posture.  Hands & feet – Prehensile or grasping ability. Term 2) Diet and Teeth Definition  Eat a wide variety of foods.  “Generalized” dentition  Teeth not specialized for one type of food. Term 3) Senses and the Brain Definition  “Color vision”  Depth perception or stereoscopic vision  Eyes positioned forward on the front of the face  -providing for binocular vision  Decreased reliance on sense of smell  The brain has expanded in size and complexity Term 4) Maturation, Learning, and Behavior Definition  Reduced numbers of offspring  Delayed maturation  Greater dependence on learned behavior.  Tend to live in social groups Term Primate Adaptations (explanations) Definition Evolutionary Factors Explaining Characteristics Term 1) Arboreal Hypothesis Definition  Traditional explanation  Adaptation to tree living  Prehensile hand adapted to climbing Term 2) Visual Predation Hypothesis Definition  Alternative explanation  Adapted to shrubby forest undergrowth  Forward facing eyes for grabbing insects Term 3) Flower Plants Definition – Rise of flowering plants influenced primate evolution – Fine vision and tactile discrimination – Small fruits, berries, seeds in branches Term Diet and Teeth Definition  Primates are generally omnivorous  reflected in their generalized dentition Term Dental Formula Definition  Old World Anthropoids  New World monkeys -Have a different amount of premolars Term Locomotion Definition 1)Quadrupedal 2) Vertical Clinging & Leaping 3) Brachiation 4) “Prehensile tails” Term Quadrupedal Definition  Most primates “quadrupedal”  Use all four limbs  Majority are arboreal  Some “Terrestial quadrupedalism” Term Vertical Clinging & Leaping Definition number 2 Term Brachiation Definition  Brachiating (arm swinging)  Gibbons and siamangs especially Term “Prehensile tails” Definition  Grasping tail  Only among New World monkeys  (not in Old World primates) Term Primate Taxonomy Definition  In any taxonomy system  Categories illustrate evolutionary relationships  Traditionally based on physical similarities Term Biochemical Data & Taxonomy Definition  Primate classification changing because of genetic evidence  Comparisons between two species Term Comparisons DNA Sequence Definition  Chimpanzee and humans  Closer to each other than either to gorilla  Calculated that humans and chimpanzee shared common ancestor with gorilla 6-7 million years ago (mya) Term Revised Classifications Definition  Also suggested that tarsiers are related to anthropoids (more than prosimians) Term Primate Classification (simplified) Definition  Primates -order  Two major divisions -suborders Term Primate Classification (simplified)  Primates -order  Two major divisions -suborders Definition Prosimians Anthropoids Term Prosimians Definition – lemurs, lorises – and traditionally tarsier included Term Tarsier Definition  Prosimian traits  And certain anthropoid features small nocturnal primates  Islands of southeast Asia. Term Prosimians Definition -Lemurs and Lorises  Prosimians most primitive of the primates.  Primitive characteristics: Term Lemurs Definition  Madagascar Term Anthropoids -Suborder Definition Monkeys, Apes and Humans Term Infraorders (of anthropoids) Definition  New World monkeys - platyrrhini  Old World anthropoids - catarrhini – Monekys, apes, humans - Refers to nose shape Term Monkeys Definition  Divided into two large groups  New World and Old World  Separated by geographic area  and evolutionary history Term New World Monkeys Definition  Mexico, Central and South America  Arboreal (trees)  Quadrupedal  Some use prehensile tails Term Old World Monkeys Definition  Most widely distributed primate  Africa, Asia, Japan Term Old World Monkeys Habitats Definition  Tropical forests, semiarid desert, snow-covered areas  Quadrupedal  Most arboreal  Some live on the ground (baboons) Term Hominoids (Apes and Humans) Definition  Characteristics (different from monkeys) – Larger body size – Absence of a tail – Shortened trunk – More complex behavior Term Hominoidea Superfamily Definition  Traditionally Includes three types – “Lesser” Apes  Gibbons and siamangs – Great apes  Orangutans, gorillas, bonobos and chimpanzees  Hominidae – Humans Term “Lesser Apes” Definition Gibbons and Siamangs Great Apes Gorillas Chimpanzees Bonobos Humans Term Gibbons and Siamangs Definition  Smallest apes  Tropical areas of southeast Asia.  Brachiation -arm swinging  Distinctive long arms and curved fingers Term Great Apes Definition  Orangutan, Gorillas, Chimps Orangutans  Heavily forested areas of Indonesian islands  Arboreal (slow cautious climbers) Term Gorillas Definition  Largest living primates  Forests of central Africa.  Exhibit marked sexual dimorphism  (Males (400 pounds) females (200)).  Primarily terrestrial  Knuckle -walking.  Groups with one large silverback male  (w/ few adult females, and young offspring)  Almost exclusively vegetarian Term Chimpanzees Definition  Equatorial Africa.  Locomotion includes knuckle-walking  Eat a variety of plant and animal foods.  Large communities Term Bonobos Definition  Similar to chimpanzee  (Only a few thousand )  Sexuality includes frequent copulations Term Humans Definition  Habitually bipedal hominid  Family: Hominidae  Humans only living species in hominids  Genus: Homo  Species: sapiens Term Homo Sapiens: Primate Heritage  Primate heritage evident: Definition  Primate heritage evident:  1) Human teeth are typical primate teeth.  2) Dependence on vision  3) Flexible limbs and grasping hands  4) Omnivorous diet Term Human Characteristics Definition  1) Dependence on culture  2) Dramatic increase in brain size & cognitive abilities.  2) Bipedal locomotion