Term
| what the 3 main fates of nutrients absorbed by the body? |
|
Definition
1. supply energy
2. serve as building blocks
3. stored for future use |
|
|
Term
| what is meant by metabolic turnover? |
|
Definition
| the full cycling of metabolism |
|
|
Term
| what is meant by the nutrient pool? |
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Definition
| all the small molecules w/in the metabolic turnover |
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|
Term
| the sum of all chemical reactions in the body is __________. |
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Definition
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|
Term
| "AB->A+B+energy" describes what kind of reaction? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| "A+B+energy->AB" describes what kind of reaction? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| what are enzymes and why are they necessary for metabolism? |
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Definition
| enzymes are substances that accelerate chemical reactions. They are necessary because w/out them reactions wouldn't happen at the speed needed to maintain homeostasis. |
|
|
Term
| production of carbon dioxide and water (name the process) |
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Definition
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|
Term
| production of large molecules used in growth, maintenance, repair, secretions, nutrient reserves (name the process) |
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Definition
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|
Term
| what type of reactions build complex molecules needed by the body and require ATP? |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| what type of reaction supplies ATP by splitting food molecules into simpler components? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| _________ reactions also supply _____ needed to support other cellular functions such as active transport, movement, etc. |
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Definition
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|
Term
| what is the significance of chemical energy being released as energy during catabolism? |
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Definition
| provides controllable source of energy, necessary to provide energy for all cellular reactions |
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|
Term
| what is the significance of heat being released as energy during catabolism? |
|
Definition
| helps maintain body temperature. |
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|
Term
| cells obtain the energy source for most of their metabolic actions by using the chemical energy released in catabolic reactions to produce_____ |
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Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| breakdown of ATP to provide cellular energy |
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|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the most important carbohydrate in cellular metabolism is _______ |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the "preferred" energy source for cellular metabolism? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how do cells obtain glucose? |
|
Definition
"carbohydrate metabolism"
during digestion, polysaccharides & disaccharides are hydrolyed into monosaccharides like glucose & then join w/GluT molecules for facilitated diffusion across the plasma membrane & into the cell |
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|
Term
| how do cells obtain oxygen? (by way of what body system?) |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| how do cells eliminate carbon dioxide (what body system?) |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| how do cells eliminate water (what body system)? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| in addition to catabolism of glucose to form ATP, how is glucose utilized by cells in anabolic reaction & other molecular conversions?? |
|
Definition
-synthesis glycogen
-synthesis of new glucose molecules from some of the products of protein & lipid breakdown
-glucogenesis (glucose->glucogen)
-gluconeogenesis (glycerol->glucose) |
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|
Term
| _________is the process in which glucose is converted to _______ which is stored in the _______ and _______ during periods of glucose excess. |
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Definition
| Glycogenesis, glycogen, skeletal muscle, liver |
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Term
| Since the storage capacity for glycogen in the liver is limited, when it is "full" excess glucose is converted to __________ and stored in __________. |
|
Definition
| triglycerides, adipose tissue |
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Term
| __________is the process in which _______ is broken down to form ______ during periods when blood glucose levels are low. |
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Definition
| glycogenolysis, glycogen, glucose |
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|
Term
| when glucose levels are low, it may also be formed by the process of ___________, which occurs in the _______. |
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Definition
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|
Term
| During gluconeogenesis, glucose is formed from _________ & ________, both non-carbohydrate sources. |
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Definition
| triglycerides, amino acids |
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|
Term
| When utilizing triglycerides for gluconeogenesis, only the _______ portion can be used; ________ cannot (because acetyl CoA cannot be converted to pyruvi acid). |
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Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol |
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|
Term
| most dietary lipids are of which type? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| a triglyceride molecule is made up of 3______ and a_______ |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the difference between a saturated and unsaturated fatty acid? |
|
Definition
Saturated - contains only single covalent bonds between the carbon atoms of the hydrocarbon chain
Unsaturated - contains one or more double covalent bonds between the carbon atoms of the hydrocarbon chain |
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|
Term
| since lipids are insoluble in the water of plasma, they are transported in combination with ______ to form _______, which are water soluble |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| list the 4 components that a lipoprotein complex consists of |
|
Definition
| proteins, phospholipids, cholesterol, triglycerides |
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|
Term
| what is the function of Chylomicron? |
|
Definition
| transports dietary lipids to adipose tissue for storage |
|
|
Term
| what is the function of VLDL? |
|
Definition
| "very low-density lipoproteins" - transports triglycerides synthesized in hepatocytes to adipocytes for storage |
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|
Term
| what is the function of LDL? |
|
Definition
| "low-density lipoproteins" - carry 75% of total cholesterol in blood & deliver it to cells throughout the body for use in repair of cell membraines & synthesis of steroid hormones & bile salts |
|
|
Term
| what is the function of HDL? |
|
Definition
| "high-density lipoproteins" - remove excess cholesterol from body cells & the blood & transports it to the liver for elimination |
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|
Term
| compare LDL & HDL in terms of health significance |
|
Definition
LDL - bad cholesterol
HDL - good cholesterol |
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|
Term
| what are several functions/uses of triglycerides and their component fatty acids? |
|
Definition
-oxidized to produce ATP
-used as structural molecules to synthesize other essential substances
-stored energy
-protection & insulation |
|
|
Term
| what are several functions/uses of cholesterol? |
|
Definition
1. building block for steroid hormones
2. basis for bile salts
3. component of cell membrane |
|
|
Term
| what is the major function of phospholipids? |
|
Definition
| component of cell membranes (bi-layer) |
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|
Term
| most tissues utilize ______ as the "preferred" energy source, while _______ function more as an "energy reserve", stored in _______ tissue. It constitutes the major energy reserve of the body. |
|
Definition
| glucose, triglycerides, adipose |
|
|
Term
| what organ normally can only use glucose? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the caloric of a gram of triglyceride? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the caloric content of a gram of carbohydrate? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the splitting of triglycerides into glycerol & fatty acids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the synthesis of lipids by liver cells & adipose cells from glucose or amino acids |
|
|
Term
| what part of the triglyceride molecule can be catabolized to form ATP? |
|
Definition
| both parts...glycerol & fatty acids |
|
|
Term
| what is the pathway for glycerol? |
|
Definition
| glycerol is converted by many cells of the body to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. It ATP is high, it then is converted into glucose. It ATP is low, it enters the catabolic pathway to pyruvic acid. (glycerol may be converted to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate which can then be converted to glucose or enter the krebs cycle for oxidation) |
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|
Term
| what is the pathway for fatty acids? |
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Definition
| fatty acids undergo beta oxidation & enter the krebs cycle via acetyl CoA or acetyl CoA can become a ketone body by ketogenesis. |
|
|
Term
| what is beta oxidation? in what tissues/organs does it occur? |
|
Definition
| a series of reactions that constitute the first stage in fatty acid catabolism, it occurs in the matrix of mitochondria |
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|
Term
| important immediate compounds formed during high rates of fatty acid catabolism are ________. Their accumulation in the blood is called ______, which can lead to an acid-base imbalance called _______. |
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Definition
| ketone bodies, ketosis, ketoacidosis (acidosis) |
|
|
Term
| in what organs/tissues do abanolic processes occur? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what tissue is specialized to store triglyceride? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| where are most phospholipids and cholesterol synthesized? both of these molecules are important components of what part of cells? |
|
Definition
| liver cells & adipose cells, plasma membrane |
|
|
Term
| can glucose be converted to fat? can amino acids? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are essential fatty acids? |
|
Definition
| a group of fatty acids that are essential to human health. They cannot be made by the human body & must be obtained from foods or supplements. |
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|
Term
| "protein sparing" refers to the preferential use of _______ and ______for energy. Only if these supplies are depleted are amino acids used as an energy source. |
|
Definition
| glucose (carbs), triglycerides (fatty acids) |
|
|
Term
| what is the process of deamination? in what organ does it occur? why is it a necessary step in amino acid catabolism? |
|
Definition
| the process of removing the amino group off the amino acid to allow them to enter the krebs cycle. It occurs in liver cells & produces ammonia. |
|
|
Term
| how is the production of urea related to deamination? in what organ is it produced and what organ eliminates it from the body? |
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Definition
| the liver cells convert the ammonia (prodcut of deamination) into urea. Produced by liver, eliminated by kidneys |
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|
Term
| some amino acids can also be used to make glucose by the process of _________. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what tissue/organs provide the most available source of protein, along w/dietary protein, thus sparing the degradation of vital organs? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| as are other excess nutrients, excess dietary protein is converted to _______, and stored in _______ (tissue). |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the most important use of amino acids in the body is _________. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are several examples of how proteins are involved in all aspects of body structure & function |
|
Definition
| enzymes, hormones, muscles, structural |
|
|
Term
| what are essential amino acids? |
|
Definition
| 10 of the 20 amino acids in the human body. They must be present in the diet because they cannot be synthesized in the body in adequate amounts. It is essential to include them in your diet. |
|
|
Term
| what is transamination? where does it occur? |
|
Definition
| the transfer of an amino group from an amino acid to pyruvic acid or to an acid in the krebs cycle. This occurs within all body cells |
|
|
Term
| are cellular proteins "recycled" in the body? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in what organelle does protein synthesis occur? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what molecules contain the "code" for protein synthesis? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are the processes in which the code is "read" |
|
Definition
| transcription & translation |
|
|
Term
| name all the metabolic reactions that occur in the liver. |
|
Definition
| glycogenesis, gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, lipolysis, lipogenesis, deamination |
|
|
Term
| name all the nutrient groups that can supply energy |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| name all the nutrient groups that can be converted to fat for storage |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| storage of triglyceride in adipose tissue (A or P) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| brain uses glucose as energy source (A or P) |
|
Definition
| absorptive, post-absorptive |
|
|
Term
| fatty acids released from adipose tissue (A or P) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| glucagon is key hormone (A or P) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| insulin is key hormone (A or P) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| glucose is major energy source (A or P) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why is regulation of blood glucose so important? what are the consequences of levels that are too high? too low? |
|
Definition
| because it is the major use of energy for the body. too high - ?? too low - diabetes, bad for kidneys, blindness, cataracts, neuropathy |
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|
Term
| after a meal, when blood glucose is high, the hormone _______ stimulates glucose storage by the process of ________. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| later, when blood glucose begins to drop, the hormone ________ stimulates breakdown of glycogen by the process of __________, and if needed, the conversion of glycerol and amino acids, in the process of ________. |
|
Definition
| glucagon, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis |
|
|
Term
| which processes raise blood glucose? |
|
Definition
| glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis |
|
|
Term
| which processes lower blood glucose? |
|
Definition
| glycogenesis, lipogenesis |
|
|
Term
| glucagon is produced in response to what condition? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| insulin is produced in response to what condition? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what hormone is lacking or ineffective in diabetes mellitus? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what gland produces insulin and glucagon? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| within the pancreas, it is the _______ that act as endocrine cells, _______ cells producing insulin, and _______cells producing glucagon. |
|
Definition
| pancreatic islets, beta, alpha |
|
|
Term
| the overall effect of insulin is to _____ blood glucose levels |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are several specific actions of insulin on glucose and other nutrients? |
|
Definition
1. accelerate faciliatated diffusion of glucose into cells
2. speed conversion of glucose into glycogen
3. increase uptake of amino acids & increase protein synthesis
4. slow glycogenolysis
5. slow gluconeogenesis |
|
|
Term
| the overall effect of glucagon is to _____ blood glucose. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are several specific actions of glucagon on glucose and other nutrients? |
|
Definition
1. stimulate glyconeogenesis
2. stimulate glycogenolysis |
|
|
Term
| ______ is the only hormone that lowers blood glucose. what are 3 hormones in addition to glucagon that can raise blood glucose levels? |
|
Definition
| insulin. cortisol, epinephrine/norepinephrine, growth hormone |
|
|
Term
| what is the fundamental difference between type I and type II diabetes? |
|
Definition
I - insulin dependent, destroys pancreatic beta cells
II - not insulin dependent, target cells less sensitive to insulin |
|
|
Term
| list 3-4 major abnormalities of diabetes and how they relate to lack of insulin |
|
Definition
1. excessive thirst
2. excessive eating
3. excess urine production (kidneys inability to absorb water)
4. glucose spilling into urine (insulin unavailable to transport glucose into body cells) |
|
|
Term
| how does ketoacidosis develop? |
|
Definition
| abnormally low blood pH, when the concentration of ketone bodies in the blood rises above normal, these acids must be buffered such as bicarbinate ions, & blood pH falls. |
|
|
Term
| what is "metabolic rate"? |
|
Definition
| the overall rate at which metabolic reactions use energy |
|
|
Term
| how is body heat produced? |
|
Definition
| by a change in BMR w/ATP. |
|
|
Term
| what is BMR? under what conditions is it defined? |
|
Definition
| the measurement obtained under standard conditions w/the body in a quiet, resting, and fasting condition |
|
|
Term
| what is the effect of thyroid hormone on BMR? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is leptin? where is it produced? what is its action with regard to control of food intake? |
|
Definition
| a hormone that is synthesized & secreted by adipocytes as more triglycerides are stored, more leptin is secreted into the bloodstream. Leptin helps decrease adiposity, total body fat mass. It acts on the hypothalamus to inhibit circuits that stimulate eating while also activating circuits that increase energy expenditure |
|
|
Term
| what are the effectors in the homeostasis of body temperature? |
|
Definition
| skeletal muscle, blood vessels & sweat glands in the skin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an elevation in body temperature above the normal temp of 98.6 due to a resetting of the hypothalamic thermostat |
|
|
Term
| in light of temperature regulation mechanism, what can cause fever? |
|
Definition
| viral or bacterial infections & bacterial toxins, ovulation, excessive secretion of thyroid hormones, tumors, reactions to vaccines |
|
|
Term
| what skin responses increase heat loss and decease body temp to normal? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what skin response decreases heat loss and increases body temp to normal? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what skeletal muscle response increases heat production and increases body temp to normal? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where are the receptors/control center for the control of body temperature? |
|
Definition
| thermoreceptors in skin, hypothalamus |
|
|
Term
| what effect does insulin have on carbohydrates? |
|
Definition
| decrease blood glucose, increase cell uptake, increase glycogenesis, glucose --> triglycerides |
|
|
Term
| what effect does insulin have on triglycerides? |
|
Definition
| increase triglyceride storage in adipose tissue (lipogenesis) |
|
|
Term
| what effect does insulin have on protein? |
|
Definition
| increase uptake of amino acids & protein synthesis |
|
|
Term
| what effect does glucogon have on carbohydrate? |
|
Definition
| increase blood glucose, increase glycogenolysis, increase gluconeogenesis (effects the liver) |
|
|
Term
| what effects does glucagon have on triglycerides? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what effects does glucagon have on proteins? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what effect does epinephrine have on carbohydrates? |
|
Definition
| increase blood glucose, increase glycogenolysis |
|
|
Term
| what effect does epinephrine have on triglycerides? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what effect does epinephrine have on proteins? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what effect does glucocorticoids (cortisol) have on carbohydrates? |
|
Definition
| increases blood glucose, increase gluconeogenesis |
|
|
Term
| what effect does glucocorticoids (cortisol) have on triglycerides? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what effect does glucocorticoids (cortisol) have on protein? |
|
Definition
| increase catabolic--> release amino acids |
|
|
Term
| what effect does growth hormone have on carbohydrates? |
|
Definition
| increase blood glucose, increase glycogenolysis |
|
|
Term
| what effect does growth hormone have on triglycerides? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what effect does growth hormone have on protein? |
|
Definition
| increases protein synthesis |
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