Term
| Environmental reasons for sex differences |
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Definition
| toys children are given to play with; |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Estrogen and progesterone |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| egg-shaped organs that all embryos have; have a cortex ("bark") and a medulla (innermost part); if a Y chromosome is present, they will turn into testes; if a Y chromosome is not present, they will turn into ovaries |
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Term
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Definition
| Male sex organs; main sex hormone is testosterone |
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Term
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Definition
| Female sex organs; main sex hormones are estrogen and progesterone |
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Term
| Organizational effects of sex hormones on internal genitalia |
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Definition
Permanent, irreversible effects; i.e. brain development, gonad development
Effects on internal genitalia: embryos have two sets of internal organs-- Wolffian ducts and Mullerian ducts; if testosterone and Mullerian inhibiting substance (testes) are present, Wolffian duct will develop into male internal genitalia; if no testosterone or Mullerian inhibiting substance (ovaries) are present, Mullerian system develops into female internal genitalia |
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Term
| Activational effects of sex hormones |
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Definition
| Activate certain behaviors or processes throughout growth; i.e. pubic hair, growth spurts |
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Term
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Definition
| Develop into male internal genitalia; vas deferens, epididymis, prostate gland |
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Term
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Definition
| Develop into female internal genitalia; uterus, fallopian tubes, vagina |
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Term
| Organizational effects of sex hormones on external genitalia |
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Definition
permanent, irreversible effects; i.e. brain development, gonad development
Unisex external appearance; in males, testosterone is converted to DHT and changes the undifferentiated genitalia into the penis and scrotum; if testosterone/DHT is not present, it defaults to the female external genitalia (clitoris, labia minora, labia majora) |
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Term
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Definition
| missing a sex chromosome; only one X; "default" female body; typically sterile; short stature and webbed necks; cognitive deficits |
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Term
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Definition
| extra sex chromosomes; typically XXY; male body will develop; symptoms can be weak; hypogonadism (poorly functioning gonads) and low fertility; increased breast tissue |
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Term
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Definition
| born with both testicular and ovarian tissue; 46 chromosomes, XX and a fragment of a Y chromosome; testosterone released by testes produces male internal and external genitalia; if Mullerian inhibiting substance is not produced, female internal genitalia will also develop |
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Term
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Definition
| 46 chromosomes, XY; deficiency in hormone 5-alpha-reductase (converts testosterone into DHT); testes develop, as well as Wolffian system; because there is no DHT, female external genitalia develop; looks female until puberty, when testosterone surges, and a penis develops; most readily adopt male gender role |
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Term
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Definition
| typically lasts 28 days; menstruation on days 1-5 |
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Term
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Definition
most contain synthetic estrogen and progesterone-- inhibition of follicular development and prevent ovulation
missing a pill- FSH should be secreted; menstruation will begin in a couple of days |
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Term
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Definition
openness of a woman to having sex; ovulation is usually associated with sexual receptivity in females of most species
human beings are sexually receptive throughout their ovarian cycle; initiated sexual behavior peaks at ovulation; testosterone is thought to be responsible for the peak in sexual activity |
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Term
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Definition
| the female sexual cycle in animals other than human beings |
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Term
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Definition
| sexual position a female rat exhibits when sexually receptive |
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Term
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Definition
the absence of a menstrual cycle
Primary amenorrhea: ovarian cycle never begins at puberty; dysfunction of the sex organs, pituitary gland
Secondary amenorrhea: menstruation ceases prematurely; caused by eating disorders or extreme exercise that results in dramatic loss of body fat |
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Term
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Definition
| Absent or dysfunctional ovaries; caused by a hysterectomy or hormonal dysfunction of FSH and progesterone; can sometimes be treated with hormone therapy |
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Term
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Definition
males that can only breed at certain times of the year
Hypothalamus detects seasonal changes (gonadotropin releasing hormone, GRH) > anterior pituitary gland > follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) AND interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH) > sperm production AND testosterone production |
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Term
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Definition
males that can breed year round; starts breeding at puberty, and hormone secretion continues throughout adulthood
Hypothalamus (GRH) > anterior pituitary gland > follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) AND interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH) > sperm production AND testosterone production |
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Term
| Anatomy of the penile erection |
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Definition
| Thoughts or stimulation signal the brain; stimulation of parasympathetic nervous system; ACH and nitric oxide are released in the base of the penis; relaxation of smooth muscle; presses against veins, causing blood to pool; ERECTION |
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Term
| Regulation of male sexual behavior |
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Definition
| Medial preoptic area- important for male sexual behavior; dopamine stimulates MPA; serotonin inhibits dopamine; SSRIs can therefore inhibit male sexual behavior |
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Term
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Definition
Daily biological rhythm; sleep cycle
Approximately one day; cyclical changes that occur on a roughly 24-hour basis in many biological processes
Disruptions in this rhythm include changing work shifts, jet lag, cramming or an exam, daylight savings time |
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Term
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Definition
| Biological rhythm that happens multiple times a day |
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Term
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Definition
Located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN); internal pacemaker; during the day, neurons here are very active, but at night, they are inactive
Can be studied by lesioning the SCN and observing the animal's behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| An external cue that synchronizes or helps entrain an organism's internal clock; light is the most powerful of these |
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Term
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Definition
The pathway that takes information about the time of day to the suprachiasmatic nucleus
Light > retina > SCN > pineal gland >melatonin > signals the brain |
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Term
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Definition
Hormone released from the pineal gland that aids in sleep
Levels are highest at night and lowest in the day |
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Term
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Definition
Very slow, regular brainwave activity
Measured by an EEG, EMG, or EOG |
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Term
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Definition
Short, fast, irregular brainwave activity
Measured by an EEG, EMG, or EOG
Characterize wakefulness |
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Term
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Definition
| Electro mayogram; electrodes are placed on different muscles to record movement |
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Term
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Definition
| Electro oculogram; electrodes are placed on eyelids to record eye movement |
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Term
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Definition
Non-REM sleep; stages 1-4 of sleep
No eye movements
Dreaming is less frequent and more mundane; dreams about things we're worried about or preoccupied with
Sleepwalking and acting out dreams can occur at this time |
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Term
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Definition
| Characterized by beta waves; 13-50 waves/second; initiated by the reticular formation/locus coeruleus (brain stem) which release norepinephrine |
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Term
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Definition
| Characterized by alpha waves; 8-12 waves/second; characterized by parasympathetic activity; initiated by the reticular formation/locus coeruleus (brain stem) which release norepinephrine |
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Term
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Definition
Short sleep stage, ~5 minutes; characterized by desynchronized theta waves (4-7 waves/second)
Muscle spasms occur in this stage ("falling" feeling) |
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Term
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Definition
Characterized by sleep spindles (short bursts of fast brain activity) and K complexes (large spikes in brain activity)
Transitional phase between desynchronized and synchronized brainwaves |
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Term
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Definition
Characterized by slow, synchronized delta waves (1-2 waves/second)
Stage 3: less than 50% of brainwaves are delta waves
Stage 4: the majority of brainwaves are delta waves
As the night goes on, each consecutive sleep cycle contains less Stage 4 sleep and more REM sleep
Initiated by the Raphe nuclei (which release serotonin) |
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Term
| REM sleep (paradoxical sleep) |
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Definition
Rapid eye movement; a very active period of sleep in which brain activity appears awake; high frequency, low activity
Muscles are paralyzed at this time
Vivid, bizarre dreams occur at this time
Overall activity: beta waves; theta waves in the hippocampus
Simultaneous activity in the pons, LGN, and occipital lobe (PGO spikes)
Lack of awareness of external sensory stimuli (unless it is VERY strong)
Dreams during this stage of sleep are internally generated; the reticular thalamic nuclei gates sensory information from the limbic system to the cortex
Initiated by various nuclei in the pons (which release acetylcholine)
Essential to stay alive; rats put on a platform in a tub of water that allows them to enter stage 3 and 4 of sleep, but as soon as REM sleep begins, they fall off into the water and wake up |
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Term
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Definition
| Spikes of activity during REM sleep that occur simultaneously in the pons, LGN, and occipital lobe |
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Term
| Restoration theory of sleep |
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Definition
The theory that the purpose of sleep is to recover from physical and mental fatigue
Waste products are removed and neurotransmitters are restored |
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Term
| Evolutionary theory of sleep |
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Definition
| The theory that the purpose of sleep is to ensure survival; sleep to conserve energy and avoid injury in the dark (or light, if nocturnal) |
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Term
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Definition
Most adults require 7-10 hours of sleep, but average 7; 60% don't get 7 hours on a regular basis
Most college students require 9 hours of sleep, but average 6 hours or less
Infants require 16 hours of sleep |
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Term
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Definition
Minimal- irritability, poor concentration
Moderate- depression, difficulty learning
Severe- brief hallucinations, adverse heath outcomes |
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Term
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Definition
Caused by sleep deprivation, use of alcohol or barbiturates
REM rebound- spend 30% of the night in REM; increased vivid dreaming |
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Term
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Definition
About 70% are negative; 82% occur in REM sleep; dreams in REM sleep are more emotional, illogical, and contain plot shifts; dreams in NREM sleep are more thought-like, repetitive, and mundane
Freud- main purpose of dreams is wish fulfillment (sexual and aggressive urges); manifest vs. latent content |
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Term
| Activation-synthesis theory |
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Definition
| The theory that dreams have no purpose |
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Term
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Definition
Most common sleep disturbance (15% of people experience it chronically); inability to get to sleep or stay asleep
Becomes recurrent if we get anxious about not being able to fall asleep
Can be treated with benzodiazepines, which can cause rebound insomnia (worse form of insomnia) when the person stops taking the medicine |
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Term
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Definition
Disorder characterized by the rapid and often unexpected onset of sleep
Includes cataplexy (loss of muscle control)
Thought to be due to low levels of orexin |
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Term
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Definition
Caused by a blockage of the airway during sleep
2-20% of population experience this
Characterized by loud snoring, gasping, and brief periods of not breathing |
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Term
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Definition
A kind of bad dream; more common
Occurs during REM sleep
Normally able to describe the bad dream |
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Term
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Definition
A kind of bad dream; extremely bad and terrifying
Occurs during NREM sleep; often awake startled
Normally aware that they had a bad dream, but cannot describe the dream
More frequent in childhood |
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Term
| Somnambulism (sleepwalking) |
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Definition
Walking while fully asleep; most frequent in childhood
Typically involves little activity, and is normally harmless
Occurs during NREM sleep |
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Term
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Definition
Being alert/aroused, orienting to a particular stimulus, and processing information in working memory
A cognitive process that is affected by the level of consciousness
Key regions in the prefrontal cortex
Can be studied with an EEG; evoked potentials- measured change in brain activity following presentation of a stimulus
Can implant electrodes into the brain which measure the evoked potentials from the surrounding cells
Early component of the evoked potential: ~20msec after stimulation; response of sensory system to stimulus
Late component of the evoked potential: ~100msec after stimulation; attentional response to stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
Focusing of receptors on important stimuli
Reticular formation is essential for orienting; destruction of this area causes inability to orient |
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Term
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Definition
| Decrease in response of brain to a repeated stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
Processing information about relevant stimuli and ignoring irrelevant information
Uses the posterior attention system, anterior attention system, and vigilance system |
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Term
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Definition
A type of attention used when a person is looking for objects in a specific location
Happens in the posterior parietal lobe; damage to this part of the brain causes contralateral neglect (typically damage to the right side of the PPL; person completely neglects the left side of their body and visual field) |
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Term
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Definition
A process that directs the various components of working memory; switching attention between two or more tasks
Happens in the anterior cingulate cortex; cognitive conflict (Stroop test- color of words is different from the color they describe) |
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Term
| Posterior attention system |
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Definition
Area of the brain involved in attentional orienting
Posterior parietal cortex and thalamus |
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Term
| Anterior attention system |
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Definition
Area of the brain involved in working memory
Anterior cingulate cortex and premotor cortex |
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Term
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Definition
Area of the brain involved in arousal
Reticular formation and locus coeruleus |
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Term
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Definition
A condition that motivates an individual to perform a particular behavior
Physical and psychological |
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Term
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Definition
| Balance, equilibrium, constant internal state |
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Term
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Definition
| The theory that we perform behaviors in order to satisfy a drive, i.e. do not like being hungry, so you eat something |
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Term
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Definition
| Hypothalamus plays a big part; directly communicates with the pituitary gland |
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Term
| Ectothermic (cold-blooded) |
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Definition
| Get body heat from external sources |
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Term
| Endothermic (warm-blooded) |
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Definition
Get body heat from internal source; relatively constant body temperature
Balancing heat production and heat loss to maintain constant internal body temperature; preoptic area of the hypothalamus has temperature sensitive neurons, signals... |
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Term
| Preoptic area of the hypothalamus |
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Definition
Important part of the brain in sexual behavior; greatly influenced by testosterone; also helps regulate body temperature; also helps regulate drinking
3rd interstitial nucleus is included here |
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Term
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Definition
Shivering to produce body heat
Preoptic area of the hypothalamus > cerebellum > SC > motor neurons > skeletal muscle contractions |
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Term
| Non-shivering thermal genesis |
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Definition
Producing body heat in ways that do not include shivering
Changing basal metabolism- normally minimum energy expended when at rest; all basic life functions produce heat |
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Term
| Changing basal metabolism |
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Definition
Form of non-shivering thermogenesis
Preoptic hypothalamus detects that you're cold > anterior pituitary (releases thyrotropin-releasing hormone) > thyroid gland > calorigenic hormones (i.e. thyroxin) |
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Term
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Definition
Form of non-shivering thermogenesis; mostly in human babies
Brown fat deposits on head and chest; hypothalamus directs burning of brown fat when core temperature is lowered |
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Term
| Heat loss via evaporation |
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Definition
| Liquid turns into gas; panting, sweating, jumping into a cold pool |
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Term
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Definition
| Losing heat from our bodies to surrounding air or objects; air is a poor conductor of heat |
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Term
| Vascular control of heat loss |
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Definition
| Superficial blood vessels dilate when hot (allow blood flow to the skin, resulting in increased heat loss) and constrict when cold (blood flow to the skin decreases, restricting heat loss) |
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Term
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Definition
| When animals with fur or feathers get cold, their hair or feathers stand upright to trap more air and conserve body heat; goosebumps in humans, though humans do not have enough hair for this to be insulating |
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Term
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Definition
| The body's major defense against bacteria and viruses; microbial invaders are very sensitive to slight changes in body temperature |
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Term
| Intracellular homeostatic mechanisms |
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Definition
| Maintaining equilibrium via maintaining a constant concentration of solutes in the cells |
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Term
| Extracellular homeostatic mechanisms |
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Definition
| Maintaining equilibrium via... |
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Term
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Definition
Happens when the concentration of solutes inside the cell is greater than normal (1.5M)
Eating salty or sugary foods > solute concentration is higher in the blood > water leaves cells and they shrink > concentration of solutes inside the cell increases
Lamina terminalis of the anterior hypothalamus > paraventricular nucleus & supraoptic nucleus AND lateral preoptic area, which initiates drinking > posterior pituitary > vasopressin > kidneys stop producing urine |
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Term
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Definition
Happens when fluid in the extracellular compartment becomes reduced in volume
Caused by profuse sweating, vomiting, diarrhea, hemorrhage; causes drop in blood pressure
Baroreceptors detect blood pressure has dropped > signal kidneys to release renin > interacts with angiotensin I which creates angiotensin II > triggers blood vessels to constrict and also communicates with the subfornical organ > preoptic area, which triggers drinking |
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Term
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Definition
| Drinking due to actual need for liquid; osmotic and hypovolemic |
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Term
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Definition
| Drinking in the absence of thirst; prandial |
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Term
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Definition
| Drinking that occurs when eating food during a meal; does not actually alleviate thirst |
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Term
| Energy balance (in relation to food consumption) |
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Definition
Energy in = energy out; energy is measured in calories
Energy in = food we eat; energy out = movement, exercise, growth, basal metabolism, and heat production |
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Term
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Definition
| Non-homeostatic cues that initiate eating; anticipation of hunger, social situations, etc. |
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Term
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Definition
| Nutrients our bodies need in large quantities; carbohydrates (converted to glucose and burned as energy or stored as fat), protein (broken down into amino acids, which are important for enzyme and neurotransmitter production), fat (broken down into fatty acids) |
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Term
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Definition
| Nutrients our bodies need in small amounts; vitamins and minerals |
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Term
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Definition
| Part of the brain responsible for allostasis and initiation of eating; stimulation of this area induces eating behavior in rats; lesioning of this area induces aphagia |
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Term
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Definition
| Loss of desire to eat; the organism will die of starvation if not force fed |
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Term
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Definition
| Part of the brain responsible for maintaining homeostasis; a detector for changes in the body; once it's stimulated enough, it initiates eating |
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Term
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Definition
| Theory that when our blood glucose levels drop low enough, we begin to eat |
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Term
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Definition
| Theory that our core body temperature drives eating behavior; when our body temperature drops minutely, it initiates eating, and when it rises to a certain point, we stop eating |
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Term
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Definition
| Theory that we initiate eating when our fat stores fall below a certain level; fat level varies from person to person; leptin is a hormone released from our fatty tissue to stop us from eating-- when we have lots of fat stored up from a recent meal, leptin is released to stop us from eating, but when the fat starts to burn off, leptin is not released and so we eat |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| A neurotransmitter secreted by neurons in the hypothalamus and brainstem; very important for homeostasis, particularly the intake of carbs |
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Term
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Definition
Another reason for initiation of eating that is not related to homeostasis or allostasis; we eat more when we find food rewarding
Reward and eating circuits in the brain overlap; opiates and cannabinoids make the user crave fatty foods (morphine, pot, etc.) |
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Term
| Drugs that facilitate food intake |
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Definition
| Benzodiazepines and barbiturates increase the activity of GABA and increase food intake |
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Term
| Peripheral eating onset mechanisms |
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Definition
| Deficit in energy levels sensed by the liver and stomach; send information via the vagus nerve to the brain > NST in medulla > paraventricular nucleus and lateral hypothalamus > (release NPY) > increase eating and reduce metabolism |
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Term
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Definition
Adrenal steroids
Decrease in estrogen and progesterone stimulates eating; females eat more right before ovulation |
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Term
| Ventral medial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMH) |
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Definition
| A central eating offset mechanism; induces satiety; lesioning of this induces hyperphagia |
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Term
| Drugs that suppress food intake |
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Definition
| Amphetamines (stimulants); catecholamines, weight loss tools |
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Term
| Androgen sensitivity syndrome |
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Definition
Testes develop but never descend, staying in place ovaries would be
XY > testes > testosterone > Mullerian inhibiting substance > Wolffian system and Mullerian system go away (but maintain female external genitalia) |
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Term
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Definition
| Part of the brain that helps in inducing sleep; release of serotonin |
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Term
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Definition
| Inserting a tube into the esophagus of an animal so that food exits at the level of the neck and never reaches the stomach; rats eventually stop eating |
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Term
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Definition
| Stomach can signal the brain that you are getting full |
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Term
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Definition
| If food is injected directly into the duodenum (part of the small intestine), the animal will stop eating even though no food was ingested in the stomach |
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Term
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Definition
| An experiment done where two rats are sewn together and their digestive tracks are crossed at the intestines; one rat eats and the food goes to the other rat's intestines, and that second rat feels full even though it didn't eat anything |
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Term
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Definition
A satiety hormone released from the duodenum; released into the blood and travels to the brain; as a neurotransmitter, it can also bind to receptors on the vagus nerve
Inhibits eating |
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Term
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Definition
| A satiety hormone released from the pancreas; starts being released at the start of the meal; breaks down glycogen in the liver, which increases blood glucose and signals the brain that you are full |
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Term
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Definition
| A pancreatic hormone that stimulates satiety; increases as soon as meal is initiated and moves glucose out of the blood and stores it in cells as glycogen |
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Term
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Definition
A satiety hormone released by fat cells (adipose tissue) in our bodies
In OB/OB rats, there is a mutation in the gene that controls this; causes an absence of circulation of this hormone and causes obesity
Most obese humans have too much of this and just don't respond to it anymore |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
An eating disorder
Causes: hormonal variations, genetic variations, behavioral factors
People who overeat have high insulin levels, which may cause insensitivity to insulin and therefore more overeating |
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Term
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Definition
| Insulin moves glucose from the blood to cells and signals the hypothalamus to initiate more eating; brain essentially thinks that the body is starving |
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Term
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Definition
| Too little insulin; glucose builds up in the blood; hyperglycemia; increased sugar in blood causes osmotic thirst |
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Term
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Definition
| Too much insulin; glucose moves out of the blood and causes hunger; hypoglycemia |
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Term
| Behavioral factors in obesity |
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Definition
Increased availability of high fat/sugar food
Decrease in physical activity |
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Term
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Definition
Engaging in recurrent binge eating, followed by efforts to minimize weight gain such as purging
Affects 4% of population, 95% of those are female
Typically normal weight
Involves a vicious cycle of guilt
Thought to be due to low serotonin levels in the medial orbital frontal cortex, which is involved in anxiety |
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Term
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Definition
Relentless pursuit of thinness; distorted body image
Involves starvation; has numerous health consequences
.5-1% of the population; more common in females |
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