Term
|
Definition
basic structure of muscles
composed of filaments- actin (protein) and myosin (ATP-dependent protein)
Z-lines- where actin is attached |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
receptor sites on muscles; neuromuscular junction; uses acetylcholine
when acetylcholine is released onto this and hits the neuromuscular junction, Na+ channels open, Ca+ is released and initiates muscle contraction; ATP is necessary for the continuation of muscle contraction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| can only communicate with one muscle, but with several fibers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
receptor sites on muscles; neuromuscular junction; uses acetylcholine
when acetylcholine is released onto this and hits the neuromuscular junction, Na+ channels open, Ca+ is released and initiates muscle contraction; ATP is necessary for the continuation of muscle contraction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the number of muscle fibers a neuron communicates with |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one of an antagonistic pair of skeletal muscles that contracts to bend a joint and relaxes to straighten a joint |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one of an antagonistic pair of skeletal muscles that relaxes to bend a joint and contracts to straighten a joint |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
a motor neuron that is large, has a bigger axon, and allows an action potential to move quickly
contacts extrafusal muscle fibers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
a motor neuron that is smaller, has a smaller axon, and does not allow an action potential to move very quickly
contacts intrafusal muscle fibers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a muscle fiber inside the muscle spindle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| muscle fibers located outside the muscle spindle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
involved in fine motor control
primary motor cortex (pre-central gyrus, parietal lobe) > spinal cord (dorsalateral corticospinal tract) > crosses at the decussation of the pyramids (medulla) |
|
|
Term
| Extrapyramidal motor system |
|
Definition
involved in gross postural adjustments; arises from cerebellum, basal ganglia, and reticular formation; does not crossover at the pyramids- several synapses along the way
cerebellum, reticular formation, or basal ganglia > integrates information in the brain on the way to the SC > spinal cord > does not cross at decussation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| severe damage to the cervical vertebrae; loss of sensory or motor function in all four limbs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| severe damage to the spinal cord below the cervical vertebrae; causes loss of sensory and motor function in the legs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| caused by damage to the basal ganglia; movement disorder that causes excessive movement; excessive dopamine and glutamate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| caused by damage to the basal ganglia; characterized by destruction of dopamine-producing cells in the substantia nigra; too little dopamine, causes slow, rigid movement and trembling |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the detection of physical energy by sense organs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the brain's interpretation of raw sensory inputs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process of converting an external energy or substance into a neural signal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| not responding as strongly to a stimulus to which one has had excessive exposure |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a specialized cell that transduces a specific stimulus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sensory receptors that transduce chemical stimuli |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sensory receptors that transduce physical sensations (touch, vibration) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| attached to sensory neurons in muscles; detects the stretching of muscles, sends signal to spinal cord, which sends a signal to motor neurons, producing the stretch reflex ("head-bobbing" motion when sleeping in class) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chemical stimuli dissolved in water that are detected by chemoreceptors in the mouth |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| located on the front of the tongue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| located on the middle sides of the tongue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| located on the back of the tongue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| located within the papilla; composed of taste cells (hundreds; each responds to only one taste quality); contain chemoreceptors for all five taste qualities (no "taste map" on the tongue) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "tiny hair"; located on the taste cells in the papillae; contain chemoreceptors that detect the stimulus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bind to ligand-gated channels |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bind to ligand-gated channels |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(FIND DIAGRAM IN POWERPOINT)
CN facial 7, glossopharyngeal 9, and vagus 10 > nucleus of the solitary tract > VPM nucleus of the thalamus > primary taste cortex (frontal lobe) |
|
|
Term
| Facial cranial nerve (CN7) |
|
Definition
| take information from the front of the tongue to the brain |
|
|
Term
| Glossopharyngeal cranial nerve (CN9) |
|
Definition
| take information from the back of the tongue to the brain |
|
|
Term
| Vagus cranial nerve (CN10) |
|
Definition
| take information from the throat and larynx to the brain |
|
|
Term
| Nucleus of the solitary tract |
|
Definition
| AKA gustatory nucleus; located in the medulla; receives and initially processes information from the cranial nerves involved in taste |
|
|
Term
| VPM nucleus of the thalamus |
|
Definition
| a group of neurons in the thalamus that processes taste information |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| primary taste cortex; area of the frontal lobe where taste is processed; gets information from the thalamus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inability to taste; caused by genetics, brain damage, or viral infection; usually cannot taste only one taste quality |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| olfactory nerve (CN1) > olfactory bulb (glomeruli) > olfactory cortex (temporal lobe) and prefrontal cortex |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chemical stimuli that are dissolved in air and detected by chemoreceptors in the nose |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the tissue at the top of the nasal cavity; contains olfactory sensory neurons; bipolar cells, cell body is in the epithelium |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| skin layer that covers the epithelium; dendrites from the epithelium extend into this; cilia at the end of the dendrites contain olfactory receptors |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| area of the skull through which the axons of the olfactory sensory neurons pass; very porous layer of skull |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| group of all the axons from the olfactory sensory neurons that carries olfactory information into the brain |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| located in the forebrain; where the olfactory nerve ends and delivers information; only sense that skips the thalamus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| special structures in the olfactory bulb that each process information about one kind of odor |
|
|
Term
| Accessory olfactory system |
|
Definition
| olfactory system that detects pheromones using the vomeronasal organ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| located in the ventral area of the nasal cavity; responsible for detecting pheromones |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inability to smell odors; caused by trauma, viral infections, or certain disorders |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| information about the body taken to the brain; uses mechanoreceptors; skin senses (pressure, touch, pain, temperature), kinesthesia, proprioception, interoception |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| skin receptors that detect pressure |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| skin receptors that are sensitive to warm temperatures |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| skin receptors that are sensitive to light touch |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| skin receptors that detect pain |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| myelinated fibers with a large diameter in the somatosensory system; A-beta and A-delta; detect immediate, sharp pain |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| somatosensory fibers that detect pressure and stretching |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| smaller somatosensory fibers that detect pain |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| small, unmyelinated, thin axons that respond to pain and temperature (dull, aching pain) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
a pathway in the somatosensory system that carries information about pressure, touch, and stretching to the brain; uses A-beta fibers
somatosensory receptors in skin (Meissner's corpuscles) > A-beta fibers > CNS (dorsal columns of SC) > synapse with neurons in the medulla > synapse in the decussation in the medulla > medial lemniscus (brainstem, midbrain) > synapse in the thalamus (ventral basal nuclei) > primary somatosensory cortex (post-central gyrus) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
a pathway in the somatosensory system that carries information about pain and temperature to the brain; uses A-delta and C-fibers
somatosensory receptors in the skin (free nerve endings) > A-delta and C-fibers > synapse in the spinal cord (substantia gelatinosa) > axons cross over in SC (not in the medulla) > spinothalamic tract > thalamus (posterior nuclei) > primary somatosensory cortex (post-central gyrus) |
|
|
Term
| Primary somatosensory cortex |
|
Definition
| located in the post-central gyrus (parietal lobe; processes information from the skin and muscles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| brainstem regions and A tactile fibers inhibit (or "gate") ascending pain pathway; periaqueductal gray and ventral lateral medulla |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an excitatory neurotransmitter that aids in the sensation of pain; released from spinal cord and thalamus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inhibitory neurotransmitters that reduce pain; natural analgesia that inhibits Substance P |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| released in discrete packets of energy called photons, which activate photoreceptors in the visual field |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| white part of the eye; covers most of the eye except for the iris |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| transparent structure over the iris |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| liquid area behind the cornea that provides nutrients to the cornea |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "hole" in the iris that allows light into the eye; autonomic nervous system dictates when the pupil dilates and contracts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| whitish/clear disc behind the iris that is attached to the ciliary muscles; aids in accommodation of the eye to see far-away objects or close-up objects |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| jelly-like substance behind the lens |
|
|
Term
| Process of detecting light |
|
Definition
| light comes in through all cells, activates rods and cones, which activate bipolar cells, which activate ganglion cells, which send signals to the optic nerve and to the brain |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| membrane covering the inside of the eye; covered in blood vessels and photoreceptors; converts light into neural activity and sends signals to the brain via the optic nerve |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| innermost layer of cells in the retina |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| second innermost layer of cells in the retina |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
third innermost layer of cells in the retina
On cells: when light activates photoreceptors and glutamate is released, these are activated and become depolarized and depolarize the ganglion cells; groups of axons leave the eye via the optic nerve
Off cells: |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fourth innermost layer of cells in the retina |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| receptors in the eye that detect light; when there is no light, they continually release glutamate; when there is light, there is a decrease in glutamate release, which causes hyperpolarization |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fifth innermost layer of cells in the retina |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
about 120 million of these cells in the eye; located in the periphery of the retina; highly sensitive in dim light; not color sensitive; not detail sensitive - helps us distinguish shape and form, motion
outer segment contains photopigments, inner segment is where neurotransmitters are released |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
about 6 million of these in the eye; located in the center of the retina; not sensitive in dim light; color sensitive; detail sensitive
outer segment contains photopigments, inner segment is where neurotransmitters are released |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| contained in the outer segments of rods and cones |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| photopigment for rods; light > rod cell > 11-cis-retinal (bound to protein opsin) > molecule changes shape > all-trans-retinal > photoreceptor bleached, and light cannot bind to it again until dark adaptation occurs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
information coming into the eye from the ipsilateral visual field always crosses at the optic chiasm; information coming into the eye from the contralateral visual field does not cross at the optic chiasm >
Photoreceptors > bipolar cells > ganglion cells > optic nerve > optic chiasm > optic tract > thalamus- lateral geniculate nucleus > V1- primary visual cortex > V2- secondary visual cortex > V3, V4, or V5 |
|
|
Term
| Trichromatic color theory |
|
Definition
| three types of cones: blue (S cones), green (M cones), and red (L cones) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
there are three pairs of opposing colors code for color in the NS
red-green, yellow-blue, black-white
explains negative afterimage- cones for one color become bleached, so you see the opposite color instead |
|
|
Term
| Ventral stream (WHAT pathway) |
|
Definition
the visual pathway that carries information about color, shape, and form; ends up in the inferior temporal lobe; cones are the primary photoreceptor
uses parvocellular ganglion cells
4 layers of parvocellular neurons in the thalamus; receives input from parvocellular ganglion cells
V1 (blob regions) > V2 (thin stripes) > interstripes [shape and form information] > |
|
|
Term
| Dorsal stream (WHERE pathway) |
|
Definition
the visual pathway that carries information about spatial relationships, shape and form, and motion; ends up in the posterior parietal lobe; rods are the primary photoreceptor
uses magnocellular ganglion cells
2 layers of magnocellular neurons in the thalamus; receives input from magnocellular ganglion cells
V1 (interblob regions) > V2 (thick stripes) > interstripes [shape and form information] > |
|
|
Term
| Parvocellular ganglion cells |
|
Definition
| smaller ganglion cells; 80-90% of ganglion cells |
|
|
Term
| Magnocellular ganglion cells |
|
Definition
| larger ganglion cells; ~10% of ganglion cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| uses the WHAT pathway; uses cones > parvocellular ganglion cells > thalamus (LGN, parvocellular neurons) > blobs of V1 > thin stripes of V2 > V4 > inferior temporal cortex |
|
|
Term
| Processing of shape and form |
|
Definition
| uses both WHAT and WHERE pathways; parvocellular ganglion cells > thalamus (LGN, parvocellular neurons) > V1 (simple cells and complex cells) > V2 (interstripes) > V3 > inferior temporal cortex |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| uses the WHERE pathway; rods > magnocellular ganglion cells > magnocellular neurons in LGN > V1 (interblobs) > V2 (thick stripes) > V5 > posterior parietal lobe |
|
|
Term
| Processing of depth and spatial relations |
|
Definition
| mostly rods, but also cones > magnocellular (but also parvocellular) ganglion cells > magnocellular (but also parvocellular) LGN neurons > interblob (but also blob) regions of V1 > interstripe (but also thick stripe) regions of V2 > V3 and V5 > posterior parietal lobe |
|
|
Term
| Processing the location of objects with the eyes |
|
Definition
| superior colliculus > V5 > posterior parietal lobe |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| frequency of sound waves (Hz) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| complexity of the sound; voices, instruments |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| height of a sound wave from baseline to peak |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| part of the ear that funnels sound further into the ear |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| part of the ear that transmits sound into the inner ear |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| part of the ear that converts vibration into neural signal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fleshy part of the outer ear that you can see; collects, focuses, and localizes sound |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tube-shaped part of the outer ear; approximately 2.5 cm long and 7 mm wide; ends with the tympanic membrane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| eardrum; separates the outer ear from the middle ear |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bones that amplify sound and transfer vibrations from air to fluid; malleus, incus, and stapes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| canal that runs from the middle ear to the throat; allows air to move in and out of the ear and relieves pressure |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| separates the middle ear from the inner ear; vibrates in response to vibrations from the middle ear and causes fluid in the cochlea to vibrate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
snail-shaped structure that contains fluid
scala vestibuli, scala media, and scala tympani |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a thin, flexible membrane that supports the hair cells and vibrates in response to vibrations from the cochlea; in turn vibrates the organ of Corti |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hair cells attached to the organ of Corti are stuck in this membrane; when hair cells vibrate, they detect the pulling and stretching and generate action potentials |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| structure between the basilar and tectorial membranes that contains hair cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| auditory branch of CN8 (auditory nerve) > cochlear nucleus (medulla) > superior olive (hindbrain; processes pitch) > reticular formation and cerebellum AND inferior colliculus (midbrain) >medial geniculate nucleus (thalamus) > auditory cortex (temporal lobe) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hearing loss caused by blockage of the external auditory meatus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hearing loss caused by damage to structures in the middle ear (i.e. eardrum, ossicles) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hearing loss caused by damage to the hair cells in the cochlea (usually caused by longterm exposure to loud noises) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hearing loss caused by damage to the auditory nerve, which can occur as a result of trauma or infection; non-correctable |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hearing loss caused by damage to any of the brain structures along the auditory pathway |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| vestibular organs in the ear; utricle and saccule |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tells the brain when the head is upright; macula is horizontal with hair cells at the base |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tells the brain when the head is horizontal; macula is vertical with hair cells on the walls |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a vestibular structure that responds to changes in head movement; hair cells contained in cristae, covered by a gelatinous cupola covering that pulls the hairs in response to movement |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| swellings at the end of each semicircular canal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| structure in the ampullae that contains hair cells; cupola-covering covers the hair cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| eye movements to compensate for head movements |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| oscillation of the eyes following stimulation of the vestibular system (i.e. after spinning in circles) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| dizziness caused by movement of the fluid in the ears; some disorders may cause this, but most of the time it is temporary |
|
|
Term
| Similarities between vestibular and auditory systems |
|
Definition
hair cells; cranial nerve 8- vestibular branch; medulla- vestibular nuclei;
branches: neurons contacted by CN 3, 4, and 6; cerebellum; spinal cord; nucleus of the solitary tract; cortex |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
a system of communication that combines symbols (words and gestural signs) in a rule-based way to create meaning
transmits information from person to person; expresses thoughts and emotions; automatic, complex, and coordinated
makes use of Broca's area and Wernicke's area |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| usually on the left side of the prefrontal cortex; damage to this causes expressive aphasia (Broca's aphasia), which makes the person have trouble with language production, both spoken and written |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| usually on the left side of the temporal lobe; damage to this causes receptive aphasia (Wernicke's aphasia), which makes it hard to understand language |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| axons connecting Broca's area and Wernicke's area; damage results in conduction aphasia, the inability to repeat back what is said to you |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| coordination of movements; involved in the language system to move the mouth; damage to this causes dysarthria, the inability to control the rate or volume of speech, and lack of coordination of mouth and tongue muscles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| serious speech deficit; not able to communicate effectively; due to damage to Broca's area or Wernicke's area |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a reflex circuit involving two synapses |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a reflex circuit involving only one synapse |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a cell that takes information out of the cerebellum |
|
|
Term
| Dorsolateral corticospinal tract |
|
Definition
part of the pyramidal motor system; arises from the primary motor cortex; synapses on motor neurons in the spinal cord; does not synapse between the brain and the spinal cord
tract "crosses" over at the decussation of the pyramids (a structure in the medulla) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| communicates with the basal ganglia; substantia nigra to the striatum; interactions with other areas of the CNS too |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| loss of acetylcholine receptors; muscle weakness; can be treated with reuptake inhibitors that stop the breakdown and reuptake of acetylcholine |
|
|
Term
| Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) |
|
Definition
| degeneration of motor neurons in the ventral spinal cord or brain; attributed to an excess of glutamate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| stimuli which occur within our own bodies; stretching of muscles and tendons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| stimuli which occur outside the body; light, smell, touch, etc. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| where integration of taste signals occurs (perception) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an infant born without a cerebrum; only basic life functions, but basic reflexes remain |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| humans can detect up to 10,000 different odors (animals can detect much more) |
|
|
Term
| Stereochemical theory of odor |
|
Definition
| each odorant is a chemical substance that has a specific shape that fits into a specific receptor site; each olfactory sensory neuron only contains one type of receptor; over 1000 different sensory neurons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the sense of what is going on inside our organs |
|
|
Term
| Secondary somatosensory cortex |
|
Definition
| pathway that carries information about what and where a sensation is on your body |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| where the "what" somatosensory pathway ends; damage to this causes tactile agnosia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inability to recognize objects by touch |
|
|
Term
| Posterior parietal cortex |
|
Definition
| where the "where" somatosensory pathway ends; visual "where" system is in a similar location; important to produce a sense of body image |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sends axons to the spinal cord to release inhibitory neurotransmitters that prevent pain signals from reaching the brain; reduces amount of pain felt |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sends axons to the spinal cord to release inhibitory neurotransmitters that prevent pain signals from reaching the brain; reduces amount of pain felt |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the lens and ciliary muscles weaken with age, making it difficult for the lens to adjust, and accommodation becomes difficult; happens around age 40, and treated with reading glasses or bifocals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the outside/inside half of the retina |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a person who has all three cone types functioning |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a person who has only two functioning types of cones |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| completely colorblind; no working cones |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| respond best to a line or edge in a particular orientation- horizontal, vertical, or diagonal; information primarily comes from the WHAT pathway |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| respond best to a line or edge in a particular orientation that is moving in a particular direction; information primarily comes from the WHERE pathway |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| caused by damage to V1; completely unable to see |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| caused by damage to V1; a person cannot see an object, but can reach accurately toward it and avoid obstacles when navigating around; a lot of information in the WHERE pathway goes directly to V5 and skips V1 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inability to recognize familiar objects in the visual field; caused by damage to the WHAT pathway (inferior temporal cortex) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inability to recognize faces; caused by damage to WHAT pathway |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| caused by damage to the posterior parietal lobe; the person has difficulty with visually guided reaching; cannot fix gaze on an object; can only be aware of one object at a time |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in normal patients, Broca's area and Wernicke's area both light up when the patient reads a sentence aloud; in deaf patients, both areas light up when they sign |
|
|
