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section 2
108
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
09/30/2014
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Term
Consciousness
 Definition
our ongoing awareness of our thoughts and feelings
Term
Conscious versus Unconscious Tasks
 Definition
  • difference: require conscious attention or not
  • exp: learning to drive a car
  • can do many unconscious (as long as they dont interfere)
  • more than one conscious is hard
  • stroop tasks (reading the color, saying the color, and saying the color of the word of the board)

 
Term
Why does the stroop effect happen?
 Definition
  • activation of the names of words happens unconsciously and automatically (without intent)
  • unconscious processes are out of awareness 
  • thus,there are things going on in our heads that we don't know are there
Term
Freud:
 Definition
  • Conscious: in the spotlight of awareness
  • Preconscious: can easily brought into awareness 
  • Unconscious: bnned from awareness, suppressed 
Term

Subliminal Priming:

 

 Definition
  • activating thoughts or feelings without conscious awarness 
  • Bargh-old people study(people walking to the elevator) aggression study (laptops freezing)
  • painting preference study (people who got the nod liked that painting better)
Term
Function of subliminal mind
 Definition
  • our brains have more to do that CNS mind can handle
  • subliminal mind picks up slack
  • Subliminal mind as pattern detector 
  • learned card game trick
  • college students who picked a poster- 6 months later lets see who like it 
Term
Altered states of consciousness
 Definition
  • sleeping
  • dreams
  • hypnosis
  • meditation
  • drugs and alcohol
Term
Falling Asleep
 Definition
  • thoughts become hazy
  • react less to external stimuli
  • muscles relax 
  • body temp, heart rate, and blood pressure slowly drop
  • level of serotonin in brain icreases 
Term
Sleep stages and Brain waves
 Definition
• Awake: low-voltage, high-frequency beta waves
• drowsy: alpha waves prominent
• stage 1 sleep: theta waves prominent
• stage 2 sleep: sleep spindles and mixed EEG activity
• Slow Wave Sleep
◦ (stage 3 and 4 sleep)
◦ progressively more delta waves (stage 4 shown)
• REM sleep (rapid eye movement sleep)
◦ low voltage, high frequency waves
Term
Stage one:
 Definition
• hypongenic sleep
• feel a gentle falling or floating
• 5-10 minutes
• won’t think you were asleep if awoken (hypongenic jerk)
Term
stage two:
 Definition
• minor noises won’t wake you, but still relatively easy to awaken
• 20 minutes
Term
stage 3&4:
 Definition
• breathing and pulse have slowed
• hard to awaken
• deep sleep
• slow wave sleep
Term
Stage 5:
 Definition
REM (rapid eye movement) sleep
• increase in heart rate, blood pressure, oxygen consumption (similar to waking state)
• Heightened cerebral activity
• muscle paralysis
• dreaming
• 20-40 minutes in early night, up to an hour later
Term
REM SLEEP THROUGHOUT THE LIFE SPAN:
 Definition
People sleep less and less as they age
Children spend 8 hours a day in REM sleep-REM sleep declines but non-REM sleep stays the same
As we age we get less and less non-REM sleep
Term
Normal Sleep cycle
 Definition
• awake, stage 1,2,3,4,3,2, REM
• REM first occurs 90 minutes after falling asleep
• naps best if get a full cycle

Beginning of the night we have slow wave sleep but as the night goes on we have more REM sleep
Term
Why do we sleep?
 Definition
• restoration function
• adaptive process
• facilitating earning
Term
Restoration Function:
 Definition
• recover from work done when animal was awake
• more exercise = SWS
• tired if deprived of SWS
• no REM = anxious and irritable
• “REM rebound”= body will still feel tired because you haven’t had slow wave sleep
• psychosis (long term deprivation)
Term
Sleep as adaptive
 Definition
• save energy at night when can’t get food
• not sleeping a lot if “hunted”
Term
Sleeping Disorders:
 Definition
• sleep apnea-not getting enough oxygen
• narcolepsy- don’t have enough distinguishing between wake and sleep-they fall asleep all the time and wake up all the time
• rem behavior-when you don’t have muscle paralysis
Term
Dreams:
 Definition
64% of dreams associated with sadness, fear, or anger
Aggressive acts outnumbered friendly acts by 2:1
18% of dreams were happy or exciting
29% of dreams were in color
Term
What do we dream about?
 Definition
Being naked when others are not or in an unusual place
Falling
Loose or falling teeth
Taking an exam (being unprepared)
Being chased (being unable to move quickly)
Flying
Lucid Dreams (realize we are dreaming)
Term
What Do we Dream about?
 Definition
Freud believed that dreams expressed wishes, often disguised
Manifest Content
Conscious dream content that is remembered after awakening
Latent Content
The unconscious, uncensored meaning of a dream
Believed that symbols in dreams are universal
Dreams are the key to the unconscious
Wrote book on interpretation of dreams
Term
Activation-synthesis hypothesis:
 Definition
During REM sleep there are random bursts of nerve cell activity
Dreams are the way the mind makes sense of those bursts. Tells a story.
Explains why dreams can seem so random
Term
Epiphenomenal Memory Theory
 Definition
Right Brain encodes the days memories during REM sleep
-Links memories to old ones
-Reestablishes neural pathways
Left Brain (language center) tries to make sense of what aright brain doing. Tells stories
Stories are dreams
Term
Karni's Experiment
 Definition
Participants learned a new skill
1/3 let sleep a full night
1/3 interrupted REM sleep
Tested for new skill in morning
Term
Drugs and Dependence:
 Definition
Psychoactive Drug- A chemical that alters perception, thought, moods, or behaviors
Physical Dependence- A physiological addiction in which more of drugs is needed to prevent symptoms of withdrawal
Psychological Dependence- A condition in which drugs are needed to maintain a sense of well-being or relief from negative emotions
Term
Classifying Drugs:
 Definition
Depressants slow down activity in the CNS (central nervous system)
Stimulants speed up activity in CNS
Psychedelic drugs disrupt normal thought processes
Narcotics relieve pain and cause euphoria
Term
Depressants:
 Definition
Slow down the Central Nervous System (CNS)
Alcohol
barbiturates
tranquilizers
sedatives
Term
How Depressants Work
 Definition
Barbiturate sedatives attach to GABA receptors and then slow the firing of the central nervous system neurons
Alcohol Effect:
Reduced Motor Skills
Unconsciousness
Clouded judgement
Loss of motor control
Reduced Inhibitions
Death
Damage to live and brain
Fetal damage in pregnant women
Term
Stimulants:
 Definition
Speed up the CNS
Amphetamines
cocaine
nicotine
caffeine
Term
How do stimulants work?
 Definition
Cocaine- deduces dopamine reuptake- feelings of pleasure
Amphetamines- reduces neophreinephrine -feelings of alertness and activity
Term
Cocaine
 Definition
Low dosage effects: intense short-term euphoria. Can be rebound
High dosage effects: paranoia, irregular heartbeat, death
Highly addictive
Nasal membrane damage possible with long term use
Term
Hallucinogens
 Definition
Include LSD,PCP, mescaline, marijuana
Causes sensory distortions, hallucinations
Effects of Hallucinogens on the Brain
All have different effects
Term
LSD and psilocybin
 Definition
Molecules that mimic serotonin
Causes marked visual hallucinations, sensory distortions
Induces powerful emotional feelings
Negative hallucinations and emotions possible
Flashbacks? fiction.
Term
Ecstasy (MDMA)
 Definition
Causes the release of serotonin and blocks the reuptake
Effects dopamine system as well
Causes euphoria
Deaths linked to “impure” drug
Possible long term harm to serotonin and dopamine systems
Term
Marijuana (THC)
 Definition
Relieves anxiety, inhibitions
Can fine-tune perception
Can cause paranoid thought
Increase appetite
Reduces memory performance and motivation
Takes weeks to metabolize
No deaths, not physically addicting
Term
Narcotics:
 Definition
Reduce pain, cause euphoria
Heroin
Morphine
Opium
Codeine
Term
How Narcotics Work:
 Definition
Heroin-Attaches to endorphin, slows firing of pain neurons
Term
Heroin
 Definition
Produces powerful euphoria, deadens pain
Highly physiologically addictive
Causes death in large doses
Term
Learning:
 Definition
A change in knowledge or behavior that results from experience

Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Observational Conditioning
Term
Watson's Extreme Environmentalism
 Definition
“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own special world to bring them up in, and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to be any type of specialist I might select-doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocation, and race of his ancestors.”— John Broadus Watson, 1928
Not really a common belief
Term
Pavlov's Apparatus
 Definition
Harness and fistula (mouth tube) help keep dog in a consistent position and gather uncontaminated saliva samples
they do not cause the dog discomfort
Term
Before conditioning
 Definition
Before Stimuli Are Paired
Unconditional Stimulus (US) elicits Unconditioned Response (UR)-Meat leads to Salivation
Neural stimulus (NS) elicits no particular response -Bell leads to orienting response only
Term
During And After Conditioning:
 Definition
Conditioning: Neural Stimulus (NS) is Paired with the Unconditioned Stimulus
Bell rings, then meat powder is delivered
Happens a number of times (trials)


After Several Trials:
When Bell rings, dog salivates
The Bell is now a Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Salivation is a Conditioned Response (CR)
Term
Classical Conditioning:
 Definition
Generalization: when the classically-conditioned reaction occurs to similar stimulus
Term
Classical Conditioning terms:
 Definition
Acquisition-Formation of a learned response to stimulus through presentation of an unconditioned stimulus
Extinction-Elimination of a learned response to a stimulus through presentation of an unconditioned stimulus
Spontaneous Recovery- Re-emergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period
Term
Classical conditioning links horror movies music to fear
 Definition
Scary Music (NS)—> Gore (UCS)—>Fear (UCR)
Scary Music (CS)—> Fear (CR)
Term
Learning Factors:
 Definition
Number of pairing
Reliability of CS in predicting USC
Occurrence of CS just before UCS
Term
Prepared Classical Conditioning
 Definition
Organisms seem predisposed to make certain associations
e.g., nausea creates taste aversions
EXP: drinking
Exp:Garcia
Garcia’s rats
Bright light —> Shocks
Bright Light —> Nausea
Funny Water —> Shocks
Funny Water —> Nausea
Conditions 1 and 4 easiest for conditioning to occur
Term
Classical Conditioning and Drug Overdose
 Definition
Drug—> Body prepares itself
Drug + Set—> Body prepares itself
Set—> Body prepares itself
New Setting—> Overdose (body unprepared)
Term
Operant Conditioning
 Definition
Learning associations between actions and consequences
Term
Thorndike and Puzzle Boxes (Learning occurred because there was a reward)
 Definition
Thorndike
Cats put into puzzle boxes
Slightly hungry
Food outside
Time to escape decreased over attempts
Behaviors that worked to escape were repeated
Other behaviors decreased
Term
Types of Reinforcement:
 Definition
Positive Reinforcement
adds good things
Examples: Money, Praise, Food
Negative Reinforcement
Taking bad things away
Examples: removing pain, toothache, hanger
Term
Shaping:
 Definition
Rewarding successively closer approximations of a desired behavior
Useful for teaching new behaviors
exp: puppy paper training
Term
Rate of reinforcement:
 Definition
Continuous reinforcement: reward after every response
Random reinforcement:only sometimes reward
Random better
Exp: kids and temper tantrums, icky boyfriends/girlfriends
Term
Reinforcement Schedules:
 Definition
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
Fixed Interval
Variable Interval
Term
Fixed Ratio Reinforcement:
 Definition
Reward after a set number of responses
Exp: Frequent shopper at Perks-get a free coffee after buying 9 drinks
Term
Variable Ratio Reinforcement:
 Definition
Reward after a varying number of responses
Exp: local bakery throws in free muffin every once in a while
Term
Fixed Interval Reinforcement
 Definition
Exp: Reward at the end of a half hour of studying
Term
Variable Interval Reinforcement:
 Definition
Reward after a variable time interval
Exp: Reward at the end of a 15 minutes, then 10 minutes, then 25
Term
Schedules of Reinforcement:
 Definition
Steeper lines mean higher response rates
Ratio schedules produce higher response rates than interval schedules (ratio ones work better)
Term
Extinction:
 Definition
More rapid to fixed ratio than variable ratio reinforcement
Thus, best is Variable ratio !
Term
observational learning
 Definition
Learning without direct reinforcement
Exp: blow up clown and guns
Term
Memory
 Definition
An Information-Processing Model
The Sensory Register
Short-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory
AutobiographicalMemory
Biological basis of Memory
Term
Information-Processing Model of memory
 Definition
Forgetting can occur from any memory stage
Retrieval puts information from LTM (long term memory) to STM (short term memory)
Moving information from Sensory memory to STM requires attention
Moving information from STM to LTM requires proper encoding
Term
Sensory Memory:
 Definition
Visual sensory memory (the icon)
Auditory sensory memory (the echo)
Very Large capacity
Very short duration:
about 250ms. for the icon
1-2 sec/ for the echo
Exp: Repeating after friend asks if you are listening
Term
Short Term Memory (STM)
 Definition
Limited capacity —7 plus or minus 2 chucks
Chunk: a meaningful unit
Examples: -A single letter (S)
-A group of letters (FBI)
-A group of words (Four score and seven years ago)
Duration of 20-30sec., due to limited capacity & interference
Also called “working memory”
Term
long term memory
 Definition
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Forgetting
Reconstruction
Term
long term memory (LTM)
 Definition
Huge Capacity
Potentially long duration (decades)
Organized by meaning
Procedural Memory: Memory for motor skills learned through practice
Declarative Memory: Memory for facts and personal experiences
Term
Elaborative Rehearsal:
 Definition
Subjects were shown lists of words
Asked to use one of three strategies:
Visual: is the word printed in capital letters?
Acoustic: does the word rhyme with _____?
Semantic: Does the word fit the sentence _________? (best)
Term
Improving Memory
 Definition
Organization: memory greatly enhanced by actively organizing material as it is learned
- Because of Semantic networks
Spaced Practice: Shorter practice sessions spaced widely apart; more effective than massed practice
Mnemonic Devices:
Strategies that can increase memory, esp. for material that is not easily organized
Impose an artificial structure on items that would otherwise be hard to remember
Term
Mnemonic Devices:
 Definition
Acronyms- Representing each item with a single letter that fits into a familiar word or phrase (example: RPYBBIV- the rainbow)
Term
Factors Affecting Retrieval
 Definition
Serial Position
Environmental Context
State-Dependence
Stress and Anxiety
Term
The Serial-Position Effect
 Definition
Subjects memorized lists or words
Recall immediate (yellow line) or delayed (green lines)
Primacy: Good recall of first items on list
Recency: Good recall for last items
Term
Environmental Context:
 Definition
Becomes encoded along with the material being remembered
Reinstating context often increases memory
Exp: taking test in classroom, revisiting your old school
Term
Context-Dependent Memory:
 Definition
Scuba divers learned words either on land or underwater
Tested for recall on land or underwater
Recall was better in context where words had been learned
Term
State-Dependent Memory:
 Definition
Internal body states are encoded with memories
Memories easier to retrieve when these body states are entered again
Term
Stress and Memory:
 Definition
When taking an exam people do better when they have a moderate level of stress
Term
Forgetting:
 Definition
Failure to Encode: Failing to put material into LTM; Common in “forgetting” people’s names
Decay:Fading of memory through disuse; impossible to distinguish from permanent retrieval failure
Interference: Confusion or entanglement of similar memories
Motivated Forgetting: Repression of memories, sully to avoid dealing with traumatic experiences
Retrieval Failure: inability to find the necessary memory cue for retrieval; sometimes temporary
Term
Tip of the Tongue:
 Definition
Example of retrieval failure
The feeling of being on the verge of recalling something
Often you can say what letter it starts with, or how many syllables it has
best strategy is to stop trying and it’ll come back to you
Term
Interference and Forgetting:
 Definition
Proactive interference - when you remember what you learned first
Retroactive interference -when you remember what you learned second
Term
Reconstruction
 Definition
Piecing memory together from a few highlights, then filling in details based on what we think should have
*All* memory is reconstructive to a degree
Explains why people disagree about what happened so often
Exp: plane crashing in the Netherlands
Term
Eye Witness:
 Definition
Relies greatly on reconstructive memory
Influential in trials
Accuracy is variable
Term
Witness beliefs about their own testimony over time
 Definition
In the beginning their confidence is low, but as time progresses their confidence increases in that memory…accuracy stays the same throughout time
Term
False Memories:
 Definition
Wife tells husband story and over time husband starts to believe he was there as well


1/2 the participants told to imagine themselves doing certain things
All participants brought back later and asked if they “remembered” doing these things
Term
Autobiographical Memory:
 Definition
Flashbulb Memories:-highly vivid and enduring memories, typically for events that are dramatic and emotional
Childhood Amnesia- The inability of most people to recall events from before the age of three or four (probably because of language barriers)
Hindsight Bias- the tendency to think that after an event that we knew in advance what was going to happen
Term
Consciousness and Memory:
 Definition
Implicit Memory-unconscious retention in memory, as evidenced by the effect of a previous experience or previously encountered information on current thoughts or actions
Explicit Memory-Conscious, intentional recollection of an event or item of information
Term
Biology and Memory:
 Definition
The basal ganglia and the cerebellum implicit processes
The frontal lobes explicit processes
Semantic-Left
Episodic-Right
Term
Motivation:
 Definition
The requirements and desires that lead animals to behavior
Term
Maslow’s Pyramid of Needs
 Definition
Needs arranged hierarchy
Low-level needs must be met before trying to satisfy higher-level needs
Esteem: Status, respect, power
Self-Actualization:Fulfill one’s potential
It’s hard to focus on higher goal’s when hungry
Term
Basic Human Motives:
 Definition
Hunger and eating
sexual motivation
belongingness
Term
The Hunger-Regulation Cycle
 Definition
When blood glucose is low, people become hungry
Food raises glucose, reduces hunger and eating
Term
The Hypothalamus
 Definition
The ventromedial hypothalamus inhibits hunger when blood sugar is high
The lateral hypothalamus stimulus eating when blood sugar is low
Term
Weight
 Definition
People like fatty food
Set Point: a body weight that is easiest to maintain
Metabolism: the rate at which food is converted to energy
Gain weight:
Eat more
more fat cells
slow metabolism
higher set point
Lose weight
Eat less
same number of fat cells
exercise more
faster metabolism
Term
Obesity
 Definition
20% above ideal body weight
56% overweight; 20% obese
Someone who is 40 percent overweight is twice as likely to die prematurely as an average-weight person
obese people often face prejudice
Feelings of rejection, shame, or depression are common
Don’t differ in personality characteristics
Mostly genetic-several dozen genes
affect appetite
affect metabolic rate
affect satiation
Careful diet changes and exercise
Term
Do diets work?
 Definition
Ironic Processes
try not to thing of a white bear
two processes: distract and search
rebound occurs
Effects on dieting
so no..they are horrible
Term
Eating Disorders
 Definition
Anorexia Nervosa: an intense fear of being fat, feel fat, even when emaciated, loss of 25% of body weight
Bulimia: episodic, uncontrollable eating followed by purging
Vast majority female 7/1
86% report onset of illness by age 20
There are at least 8,000,000 or more victims in this country alone
believe they would be more happy or successful if they were thin
Society encourages these beliefs and their behavior
Term
Warning signs for eating disorders
 Definition
Deliberate self-starvation with weight loss
fear or gaining weight
refusal to eat
denial of hunger
constant exercising
sensitivity to cold
absent or irregular periods
loss of scalp hair
a self-perception of being fat when the person is really too thin
Term
Repercussions:
 Definition
Physical Repercussions from one or both diseases
Malnutrition- dehydration-serious heart, kidney, and liver damage-tooth/gum erosion
Psychological repercussion from both diseases
depression-shame and guilt-umpired family and social relationships -mood swing
Term
Sexual Motivation
 Definition
need to reproduce, gender differences in attraction
Term
Gender differences in Reproduction
 Definition
Differential investment
Lead to different motives
Men:
As many as possible
Fertile age
Women:
as wealthy as possible
find mate for life
Term
Sex differences in marriage age
 Definition
Men tend to marry younger women
this age difference increases with man’s age
Women tend to marry men who are slightly older
this changes little with age
Term
Problems with evolutionary account?
 Definition
What we say and what we do are different things
Everyone likes sex (female orgasm)
Societal explanations of women’s behavior
ancestors had little choice
Term
Belongingness Motives:
 Definition
All humans, across cultures, belong to small groups that involve face to face interaction
Need for Affiliation
Desire to establish and maintain social contacts
Need for intimacy
Desire for close relationships characterized by open and intimate communication
Self-Disclosure
Sharing of intimate details about oneself to another person
Term
Lack of Belonging:
 Definition
Most traumatic event: death of a close person
Mental health: depression and anxiety
Physical health-weakens immune system
men dying after wife
more visits to health center
likelihood of suicide: lack of social integration. more multiple and strong relationships= less likely to commit suicide
Term
Esteem Motives:
 Definition
Achievement Motivation-a strong desire to accomplish difficult tasks, outperform others, and excel
Need for Power- a strong desire to acquire prestige and influence over other people
Term
Intrinsic Motivation:
 Definition
wanting to engage in an activity for its own sake
Term
Extrinsic Motivation:
 Definition
wanting to engage in an activity for external rewards

College students had 3 sessions with puzzles- kids that like puzzles and got paid for it took longer and once they stopped getting payed they lost interest.
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