Term
| Most nerves are "mixed" What does that mean? |
|
Definition
| They are composed of both sensory and motor fixed fiber |
|
|
Term
| There are ___ cranial nerves and ___ spinal nerves |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The ANS is responsible for regulation of the _______, smooth muscles, and glands, and "__________" ______ & blood vessels |
|
Definition
| cardiac muscles; involuntary; organs |
|
|
Term
| Subcortical and frontal cortex are central control for __________ while the hypothalamus, __________, and spinal cord are center for the _________ |
|
Definition
somatic
brain stem/autonomic |
|
|
Term
The general differences in the ANS in the two systems are that “rest & digest” (___________) vs.
“fight or flight” (__________) |
|
Definition
| parasympathetic/ sympathetic |
|
|
Term
| How are hormones usually synthesized? |
|
Definition
| As inactive precusor molecules: prehormones and prohormones (preprohormones) |
|
|
Term
Most target tissues are regulated by multiple hormones; downstream effects may be complementary or antagonistic
Tissue response is dependent on ____________________________ |
|
Definition
| plasma concentrations of hormones |
|
|
Term
Physiological ranges --> “______________” or “____________-”
Pharmacological ranges --> “___________” or “__________” |
|
Definition
sensitization/upregulation
desensitization/downregulation |
|
|
Term
| What are the chemical structures of hormones? |
|
Definition
| Amino acid derivatives (norepi/epi; thyroid) / *Peptides/protiens / steroids |
|
|
Term
| Hydrophilic hormones interact with _________ _______ at target tissues |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Examples of hydrophillic hormones |
|
Definition
| Peptide/protiens, Epi/norepi |
|
|
Term
| Examples of hydrophobic hormones |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ________ hormones interact with intracellular receptors at target tissues |
|
Definition
| Hydrophobic (or lipophilic) |
|
|
Term
| What is the endocrine part of the pancreas called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Alpha pancreatic cells secrete _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Beta pancreatic cells secrete _____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What influences secretion of pancreatic hormones? |
|
Definition
| Concentration of blood glucose levels |
|
|
Term
| Which hormone is responsible for anabolism? What is anabolism? |
|
Definition
| Insulin; growth and creating larger molecules |
|
|
Term
| Which hormone is responsible for catabolism? What is catabolism? |
|
Definition
| Glucagon; Create free glucose, break down larger molecules to smaller for energy release |
|
|
Term
| What are the target tissues for pancreatic hormnoes? |
|
Definition
| liver, skeletal muscle, adipocytes |
|
|
Term
| Which type of pancreatic metabolism uses ATP? |
|
Definition
| Anabolism, building larger molecules |
|
|
Term
| The insulin receptor is a RTK. What does that meam? |
|
Definition
Receptor Tyrosine Kinases; a enzyme-linked surface receptor protein; Tyrosine kinases attach phosphate groups to tyrosine residues within proteins
Activated insulin receptor phosphorylates itself |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The insulin receptor is a RTK. What does that meam? |
|
Definition
Receptor Tyrosine Kinases; a enzyme-linked surface receptor protein; Tyrosine kinases attach phosphate groups to tyrosine residues within proteins
Activated insulin receptor phosphorylates itself |
|
|
Term
| What is the master control” of endocrine systems? |
|
Definition
| Hypothalamus/Pituatary Axis (Integration of the nuero and endocrine systems) |
|
|
Term
| The pituitary gland is also known as the __________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The pituitary gland is also known as the __________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the two hormones of the posterior pituitary? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Contractions during labor and contraction of mamory glands during lactatio |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Water reabosorbtion by the kidneys ( aka vasopressin) |
|
|
Term
| The __________& _________ nuclei of the hypothalamus produce Oxytocin and ADH which are transported down the ________________ tract to the posterior pituitary |
|
Definition
Supraoptic & paraventricular
hypothalamo-hypophyseal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system? |
|
Definition
| A capillary/venule system that collects the hormones of the anteriory pitutary secreted by the hypothalamic nerve endings |
|
|
Term
| a common theme in target gland-mediated regulation of the anterior pituitary and/or hypothalamus |
|
Definition
| Negative feedback inhibition |
|
|
Term
Anterio Pitutary Hormones
Growth hormone (GH
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
& luteinizing hormone (LH)
Prolactin (PRL)
- promotes secretion of glucocorticoids in the adrenal cortex
- somatotropin (growth)
- sex hormones/gonad growth
- promotes T3 & T4 in the thyroid
- milk lactation
|
|
Definition
GH- 2:somatotropin (growth)
TSH- 4:promotes T3 & T4 in the thyroid
ACTH- 1: promotes secretion of glucocorticoids in the adrenal cortex
FSH/LH-3: sex hormones/gonad growth
PRL-5- milk lactation
|
|
|
Term
| The ______ _______ releases epi and nor epi into the blood |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a common theme in target gland-mediated regulation of the anterior pituitary and/or hypothalamus |
|
Definition
| Negative feedback inhibition |
|
|
Term
| What is the adrenal medulla regulated by? |
|
Definition
| Sympathetic nervous system |
|
|
Term
| What secretes corticosteroids, or steroid hormones, into the blood? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the three zones of the adrenal cortex? What do they secrete? |
|
Definition
Zona glomerulosa --> mineralocorticoids
Zona fasciculata & zona reticularis --> glucocorticoids & sex steroids |
|
|
Term
What are the (symptoms) effects of adrenal medulla cathcolines?
- Increased __________
- Increased ________
- Increased_______
- Increased ________
- Increased _______
- Blood vessels to the ____ ______
|
|
Definition
- Heart rate
- cardiac output
- alertness
- respiratory rate
- metabolic rate
- heart/dialate
|
|
|
Term
| What are the metabolic effects of adrenal medulla catecholamines? |
|
Definition
| Increased glycogenolosis in the liver; increase lipolysis in the liver |
|
|
Term
| How does Epi mediate its effects at target tissues? |
|
Definition
| By activating GPCR's that increase intracelluar second messengers (cAMP and calcium) |
|
|
Term
| What is the pathway for the cAMPE b-adrenergic receptors? |
|
Definition
b-receptor --> G-protein
--> adenylyl cyclase -->
cAMPi --> protein kinase A --> other kinases --> downstream effects |
|
|
Term
| What is the pathway for the calcuium ( a-adrenergic) receptors? |
|
Definition
a-receptor --> G-protein
--> PLC --> IP3 --> Ca2+i --> Ca/calmodulin --> kinases --> downstream effects |
|
|
Term
| Mineralocorticoids are responsible for the regulation of what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| _________ is a Mineralocorticoids that increases Na+ and H2O retention as well as K+ excretion in the kidneys |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the effect of aldosterone? |
|
Definition
| increases Na+ and H2O retention as well as K+ excretion in the kidneys --> increases blood volume & pressure; balances electrolytes |
|
|
Term
| What do glucocorticoids regulate? |
|
Definition
| glucose & other metabolites (catabolic effects) |
|
|
Term
| ____________ is a Glucocorticoid that increases blood glucose levels by ______________ ______________. |
|
Definition
| by stimulating gluconeogenesis & inhibiting glucose utilization in the tissues |
|
|
Term
| ____________ is a Glucocorticoid that increases blood glucose levels by ______________ ______________. |
|
Definition
| by stimulating gluconeogenesis & inhibiting glucose utilization in the tissues |
|
|
Term
| Besides gluconeogenisis, what else does cortisol do? |
|
Definition
it also increases free fatty acid levels in the blood by stimulating lipolysis
Role in immune suppression & inhibition of inflammation |
|
|
Term
| What are hormones synthesized from? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| _________ are hydrophobic ring structures produced in and secreted by _______ & ____________ |
|
Definition
| Hormones; Produced in & secreted by the adrenal cortex and gonads |
|
|
Term
| How do hormones flow through the blood? |
|
Definition
| Through carrier proteins; intracellular nuclear hormone receptors |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What regulates calcium levels? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What do T3 & T4 regulate? |
|
Definition
| Metabolism, growth and development |
|
|
Term
| How are thyroid hormones produced? |
|
Definition
| Hypothalamus secreters thyrotropin releasing hormones (TRH)--> anterior pitutary released THS--->thyroid gland secretes T3&T4 |
|
|
Term
| How do thyroid follicular cells transport iodide from the blood into the colloid? |
|
Definition
| Because iodide is attached to tyrosine residues on thryo globin (MIT & DIT) |
|
|
Term
| What are the target tissues for T3&T4? |
|
Definition
Liver: promotes glucose metabolism & gluconeogenesis
Skeletal & cardiac muscle, bones, & brain: promotes normal growth & development |
|
|
Term
| Production & release of thyroid hormones? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Skeletal Muscle
Smallest contractille unit:
Apperance:
Control by: |
|
Definition
nSarcomere is the smallest contractile unit;
striated (striped) appearance
nControl by somatic motor neurons |
|
|
Term
| What are the target tissues for T3&T4? |
|
Definition
Liver: promotes glucose metabolism & gluconeogenesis
Skeletal & cardiac muscle, bones, & brain: promotes normal growth & development |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| carrier-protein for T4 in blood |
|
|
Term
| What ailment does this pathway describe?Low levels of circulating T4 --> no negative feedback on anterior pituitary --> elevated TSH --> trophic effects on thyroid gland --> goiter |
|
Definition
Iodine insufficiency --> endemic goiter
Hypothyroid condition |
|
|
Term
What does this describe?
Autoantibodies mimic TSH effects at thyroid --> excessive T4 in blood, but autoantibodies circumvent normal negative feedback loop --> goiter |
|
Definition
Graves’ disease --> toxic goiter
Hyperthyroid condition |
|
|
Term
Cardiac Muscle
smallest unit:
Apperance:
controlled by:
|
|
Definition
nSarcomere is the smallest contractile unit; striated (striped) appearance
nPacemaker cells: automatic rhythmic action potentials & contractions
nRegulation of strength & frequency of contraction by autonomic motor neurons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
No sarcomeres;
no striated appearance
Control by autonomic motor neurons |
|
|
Term
Organization of Muscles
Sarcomere ---> _______ ---> ______--->_______ ---> muscle |
|
Definition
| Sarcomere ---> myofibril (repeating)---> muscle fiber/myofiber ---> fasciculus (bundle of muscle fibers)---> muscle (bundle of fasciculi |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A single motor neuron and all of the myofibers it innervates; |
|
|
Term
One muscle cell is typically innervated by___________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the neuromuscular junction? |
|
Definition
| Specialized synapse btwn the nerve terminal of a somatic neuron and the motor end plate of a muscle cell |
|
|
Term
| What is excitation/contraction (E/C) coupling? |
|
Definition
| The transformation of electrical action potentials into contraction of sarcomeres |
|
|
Term
| What is the orgaization of the sarcolemma and sarcoplasmic reticulum? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
ACTH released from PSNT -->
bind with Nicotinic Receptor-->
NA in K out-->
Depolorization-->
voltage gated Na Channels activated (down in to T-tubles)
Physical coupling btwn DHPR and RyRs allows Ca to move from SR to sarcooplasm into receptors (conformational change to pull open RyRs to let Ca out)-->Once Ca levels go up interacts with variousprotiens that force contractions
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
ACTH released from PSNT -->
bind with Nicotinic Receptor-->
NA in K out-->
Depolorization-->
voltage gated Na Channels activated (down in to T-tubles)
Physical coupling btwn DHPR and RyRs allows Ca to move from SR to sarcooplasm into receptors (conformational change to pull open RyRs to let Ca out)-->Once Ca levels go up interacts with variousprotiens that force contractions
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| dihydropyridine receptors don’t allow Ca to flow through pours; ryanodine receptors |
|
|
Term
| Thin filiments are made of ______ and thick filaments are made of ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the “sliding filament model” of muscle contraction? |
|
Definition
| Sarcomeres shorten during muscle contraction without a change in length of their filaments |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Muscle contraction means ___________-->which results from shortening of _______ -->which means movement of _______ -->
The sarcomeres shorten via _________ |
|
Definition
| Muscle contraction means shortening of muscle fibers (cells) -->Shortening of muscle cells results from shortening of myofibrils -->Shortening of myofibrils means movement of Z-discs closer to one another -->The sarcomeres shorten via sliding of thin filaments over thick filaments |
|
|
Term
| What is the “sliding filament model” of muscle contraction? |
|
Definition
| Sarcomeres shorten during muscle contraction without a change in length of their filaments |
|
|
Term
| What is the “sliding filament model” of muscle contraction? |
|
Definition
| Sarcomeres shorten during muscle contraction without a change in length of their filaments |
|
|
Term
| the sliding filament model of contraction |
|
Definition
Filaments do NOT shorten
A-bands maintain their length
I-bands and H-bands get shorter |
|
|
Term
| Eacch myosin head has two sites: |
|
Definition
| actin binding site and ATP-binding domain |
|
|
Term
| Myosin heads will only bind with actin in prescence of ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the mechanism for the cross-bridge cycle? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Myosin heads will only bind with actin in prescence of ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Tropomysin blocks myosin heads from _______ |
|
Definition
| attaching to actin filaments in relaxed states |
|
|
Term
| Tropomysin blocks myosin heads from _______ |
|
Definition
| attaching to actin filaments in relaxed states |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Stimulated muscle: Ca interacts with troponin C --> tropomyosin moves --> myosin associates with actin |
|
|
Term
Muscle Contration
twitch is the smallest “quanta” of contraction
↓
_______________
↓
_______________ (incomplete)
↓
_______________ (complete)
|
|
Definition
twitch is the smallest “quanta” of contraction
↓
summation
↓
unfused tetanus (incomplete)
↓
fused (complete)
|
|
|
Term
| FAST FATIGUE-RESISTANT (Type IIA) |
|
Definition
“Red fibers”
Fast oxidative fibers
Medium diameter & more myosin --> intermediate forcefulness
Fatigue-resistant
Relatively high oxidative capacity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
“Red fibers” (have a lot of blood supply, lots of hemo/myo)
Slow oxidative fibers
Smaller diameter & less myosin --> less forceful contractions
Fatigue-resistant
High oxidative capacity
Large capillary supply
Many mito’s & oxphos enzymes
High concentration of myoglobin (Mb) |
|
|
Term
| FAST FATIGABLE (Type IIX) |
|
Definition
White fibers”
Fast glycolytic fibers
Large diameter & more myosin --> greatest force
Fatigue quickly
Low oxidative capacity (anaerobic respiration)
Fewer capillaries & mito’s, less Mb
Increased glycogen stores
Increased concentration of glycolytic enzymes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
