Term
| Nature vs. Nurture Debate |
|
Definition
| the ongoing discussion of the respective roles of genetics and socialization in determining individual behaviors and traits |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process of learning and internalizing the values, beliefs, and norms of our social group, by which we become functioning members of society |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in myths and rare real-world cases, children who have had little human contact and may have lived in social isolation from a young age |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a branch of science that uses biological and evolutionary explanations for social behavior |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the individual’s conscious, reflexive experience of a personal identity separate and distinct from other individuals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| according to Freud, the three interrelated parts that make up the mind: the id consists of basic inborn drives that are the source of instinctive psychic energy; the ego is the realistic aspect of the mind that balances the forces of the id and the superego; the superego has two components (the conscience and the ego-ideal) and represents the internalized demands of society |
|
|
Term
| PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT |
|
Definition
| four distinct stages of the development of the self between birth and adulthood, according to Freud; personality quirks are a result of being fixated, or stuck, at any stage |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| `ethe notion that the self develops through our perception of others’ evaluations and appraisals of us |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the first stage in Mead’s theory of the development of self wherein children mimic or imitate others |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| second stage in Mead’s theory of the development of self wherein children pretend to play the role of the particular or significant other |
|
|
Term
| PARTICULaAR OR SIGNIFICANT OTHER |
|
Definition
| the perspectives and expectations of a particular role that a child learns and internalizes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the third stage in Mead’s theory of the development of self wherein children play organized games and take on the perspective of the generalized other |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the perspectives and expectations of a network of others (or of society in general) that a child learns and then takes into account when shaping his or her own behavior |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the idea that we experience the self as both subject and object, the “I” and the “me” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| classic formulation of the way individuals define situations, whereby “if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| observable expressions that can be either intended or unintended and are usually nonverbal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| expressions that are intentional and usually verbal, such as utterances |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| small actions such as an eye roll or head nod that serve as an interactional tool to help project our definition of the situation to others |
|
|
Term
| DEFINITION OF THE SITUATION |
|
Definition
| an agreement with others about “what is going on” in a given circumstance; this consensus allows us to coordinate our actions with those of others and realize goals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the effort to control the impressions we make on others so that they form a desired view of us and the situation; the use of self-presentation and performance tactics |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in the dramaturgical perspective, the context or setting in which the performance takes place |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the expressive equipment we consciously or unconsciously use as we present ourselves to others, including appearance and manner, to help establish the definition of the situation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in the dramaturgical perspective, the setting or scene of performances that helps establish the definition of the situation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an approach pioneered by Erving Goffman in which social life is analyzed in terms of its similarities to theatrical performance |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in the dramaturgical perspective, places in which we rehearse and prepare for our performances |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| behaviors that help others to save face or avoid embarrassment, often referred to as civility or tact |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process by which a concept or practice is created and maintained by participants who collectively agree that it exists |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in the dramaturgical perspective, the region in which we deliver our public performances |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ethnographic description that focuses on the feelings and reactions of the ethnographer |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| values or behaviors that students learn indirectly over the course of their schooling because of the structure of the educational system and the teaching methods used |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| social groups, institutions, and individuals (especially the family, schools, peers, and the mass media) that provide structured situations in which socialization takes place |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process of replacing previously learned norms and values with new ones as a part of a transition in life |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an institution in which individuals are cut off from the rest of society so that their lives can be controlled and regulated for the purpose of systematically stripping away previous roles and identities in order to create new ones |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a status generated by physical characteristics |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a status earned through individual effort or imposed by others |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an inborn status; usually difficult or impossible to change |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a position in a social hierarchy that carries a particular set of expectations |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a status that is always relevant and affects all other statuses we possess |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process of leaving a role that we will no longer occupy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the tension experienced when there are contradictory expectations within one role |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| experienced when we occupy two or more roles with contradictory expectations |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the set of behaviors expected of someone because of his or her status |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| judging others based on preconceived generalizations about groups or categories of people |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| emotions like sympathy, embarrassment, or shame that require that we assume the perspective of another person or many other people and respond from that person or group’s point of view |
|
|
Term
| EMOTION WORK (EMOTIONAL LABOR) |
|
Definition
| the process of evoking, suppressing, or otherwise managing feelings to create a publicly observable display of emotion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| socially constructed norms regarding the expression and display of emotions; expectations about the acceptable or desirable feelings in a given situation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| face-to-face interaction or being in the presence of others |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the ability of the individual to act freely and independently |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a postmodern idea that the self is now developed by multiple influences chosen from a wide range of media sources |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the systematic or scientific study of human society and social behavior, from large-scale institutions and mass culture to small groups and individual interactions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a group of people who shape their lives in aggregated and patterned ways that distinguish their group from other groups |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the disciplines that use the scientific method to examine the social world, in contrast to the natural sciences, which examine the physical world |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| approaching the world without preconceptions in order to see things in a new way |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a way of looking at the world through a socio logical lens |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a sense of disorientation that occurs when you enter a radically new social or cultural environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a quality of the mind that allows us to understand the relationship between our individual circumstances and larger social forces |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the level of analysis that studies face-to-face and small-group interactions in order to understand how they affect the larger patterns and institutions of society |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the level of analysis that studies large-scale social structures in order to determine how they affect the lives of groups and individuals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a set of assumptions, theories, and perspectives that make up a way of understanding social reality |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in sociology, abstract propositions that explain the social world and make predictions about the future |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a procedure for acquiring knowledge that emphasizes collecting concrete data through observation and experiment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the theory, developed by Auguste Comte, that sense perceptions are the only valid source of knowledge |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a procedure for acquiring knowledge that emphasizes collecting concrete data through |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the application of the theory of evolution and the notion of “survival of the fittest” to the study of society |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a paradigm based on the assumption that society is a unified whole that functions because of the contributions of its separate structures |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| term developed by Émile Durkheim to describe the type of social bonds present in premodern, agrarian societies, in which shared traditions and beliefs created a sense of social cohesion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| term developed by Émile Durkheim to describe the type of social bonds present in modern societies, based on difference, interdependence, and individual rights |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| “normlessness”; term used to describe the alienation and loss of purpose that result from weaker social bonds and an increased pace of change |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an intense energy in shared events where people feel swept up in something larger than themselves |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the shared morals and beliefs that are common to a group and which foster social solidarity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| based on scientific experimentation or observation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a social institution that is relatively stable over time and that meets the needs of society by performing functions necessary to maintain social order and stability |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a disturbance to or undesirable consequence of some aspect of the social system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the ordinary, mundane, or everyday |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the holy, divine, or supernatural |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the degree of integration or unity within a particular society; the extent to which individuals feel connected to other members of their group |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the obvious, intended functions of a social structure for the social system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| generated by the competition among different class groups for scarce resources and the source of all social change, according to Karl Marx |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a political system based on the collective ownership of the means of production; opposed to capitalism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the unequal distribution of wealth, power, or prestige among members of a society |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a paradigm that sees social conflict as the basis of society and social change, and emphasizes a materialist view of society, a critical view of the status quo, and a dynamic model of historical change |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the less obvious, perhaps unintended functions of a social structure |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and characterized by competition, the profit motive, and wage labor |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| workers; those who have no means of production of their own and so are reduced to selling their labor power in order to live |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| owners; the class of modern capitalists who own the means of production and employ wage laborers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the sense of dissatisfaction the modern worker feels as a result of producing goods that are owned and controlled by someone else, according to Karl Marx |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a political system based on state ownership or control of principal elements of the economy in order to reduce levels of social inequality |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| anything that can create wealth: money, property, factories, and other types of businesses, and the infrastructure necessary to run them |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a system of beliefs, attitudes, and values that directs a society and reproduces the status quo of the bourgeoisie |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a contemporary form of conflict theory that criticizes many different systems and ideologies of domination and oppression |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the new social system created out of the conflict between thesis and antithesis in a dialectical model |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the opposition to the existing arrangements in a dialectical model |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the existing social arrangements in a dialectical model |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Karl Marx’s model of historical change, whereby two extreme positions come into conflict and create some new third thing between them |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the recognition of social inequality on the part of the oppressed, leading to revolutionary action |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a denial of the truth on the part of the oppressed when they fail to recognize the interests of the ruling class in their ideology |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a theoretical approach that looks at gender inequities in society and the way that gender structures the social world |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| practical action that is taken on the basis of intellectual or theoretical understanding |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a paradigm that proposes that categories of sexual identity are social constructs and that no sexual category is fundamentally either deviant or normal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the application of economic logic to human activity; the use of formal rules and regulations in order to maximize efficiency without consideration of subjective or individual concerns |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the rationalization of modern society |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Max Weber’s pessimistic description of modern life, in which we are caught in bureaucratic structures that control our lives through rigid rules and rationalization |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| secondary groups designed to perform tasks efficiently, characterized by specialization, technical competence, hierarchy, written rules, impersonality, and formal written communication |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| “empathic understanding”; Weber’s term to describe good social research, which tries to understand the meanings that individual social actors attach to various actions and events |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a theoretical perspective that assumes organisms (including humans) make practical adaptations to their environments; humans do this through cognition, interpretation, and interaction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a type of sociology practiced by researchers at the University of Chicago in the 1920s and 30s that centered on urban sociology and field research methods |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a paradigm that sees interaction and meaning as central to society and assumes that meanings are not inherent but are created through interaction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a theoretical paradigm that uses the metaphor of the theater to understand how individuals present themselves to others |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the study of “folk methods” and background knowledge that sustains a shared sense of reality in everyday interactions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a sociological approach that looks at how we create meaning in naturally occurring conversation, often by taping conversations and examining them |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a paradigm that places trust in the power of science and technology to create progress, solve problems, and improve life |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a paradigm that suggests that social reality is diverse, pluralistic, and constantly in flux |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a type of critical postmodern analysis that involves taking apart or disassembling old ways of thinking |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an approach that integrates empiricism and grand theory |
|
|
Term
| The Rationality of Irrationality |
|
Definition
| George Ritzer applied Max Weber’s theories o bureaucracy and rationality to the ast ood industry. Visit the Everyday Sociology Blog to learn how Weber’s theories adapt to everyday lie. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| research that translates the social world into numbers that can be treated mathematically; this type of research often tries to find cause-and-effect relationships |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a procedure for acquiring knowledge that emphasizes collecting concrete data through observation and experiment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| research that works with nonnumerical data such as texts, fieldnotes, interview transcripts, photographs, and tape recordings; this type of research more often tries to understand how people make sense of their world |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a thorough search through previously published studies relevant to a particular topic |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a third variable, sometimes overlooked, that explains the relationship between two other variables |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a relationship between variables in which a change in one directly produces a change in the other |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a relationship between variables in which they change together, and may or may not be causal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a clear and precise definition of a variable that facilitates its measurement |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one of two or more phenomena that a researcher believes are related and hopes to prove are related through research |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a theoretical statement explaining the relationship between two or more phenomena |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the appearance of causation produced by an intervening variable |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the term used to describe a change in basic assumptions of a particular scientific discipline |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a naturalistic method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they attribute to their activities; also the written work that results from the study |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a methodology associated with ethnography whereby the researcher both observes and becomes a member in a social setting |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a positive relationship often characterized by mutual trust or sympathy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| how the identity and activities of the researcher influence what is going on in the field setting |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the presentation of detailed data on interactions and meaning within a cultural context, from the perspective of its members |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| detailed notes taken by an ethnographer describing her activities and interactions, which later become the basis of the ethnographic analysis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process by which an ethnographer gains entry to a field setting |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an inductive method of generating theory from data by creating categories in which to place data and then looking for relationships among categories |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| research that can be repeated, and thus verified, by other researchers later |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the degree to which a particular studied group is similar to, or represents, any part of the larger society |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| someone from whom a researcher solicits information |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| face-to-face, information-seeking conversations, sometimes defined as a conversation with a purpose |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an opinion held by the researcher that might affect the research or analysis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the entire group about which a researcher would like to be able to generalize |
|
|
Term
| DOUBLE-BARRELED QUESTIONS |
|
Definition
| questions that attempt to get at multiple issues at once, and so tend to receive incomplete or confusing answers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| questions that predispose a respondent to answer in a certain way |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a question asked of a respondent that allows the answer to take whatever form the respondent chooses |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a question asked of a respondent that imposes a limit on the possible responses |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a safeguard through which the researcher makes sure that respondents are freely participating and understand the nature of the research |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the part of the population that will actually be studied |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a research method based on questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| techniques for manipulating the sampling procedure so that the sample more closely resembles the larger population |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a particular type of probability sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| any sampling scheme in which any given unit has the same probability of being chosen |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a sample taken so that findings from members of the sample group can be generalized to the whole population |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| survey questions that ask respondents what they don’t think instead of what they do |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a way of organizing categories on a survey question so that the respondent can choose an answer along a continuum |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the number or percentage of surveys completed by respondents and returned to researchers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the accuracy of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which a researcher is measuring what he thinks he is measuring |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the assurance that no one other than the researcher will know the identity of a respondent |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the consistency of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which the same questions will produce similar answers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a small study carried out to test the feasibility of a larger one |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| materials that have been produced for some other reason, but that can be used as data for social research |
|
|
Term
| COMPARATIVE AND HISTORICAL METHODS |
|
Definition
| methods that use existing sources to study relationships among elements of society in various regions and time periods |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a method in which researchers identify and study specific variables — such as words — in a text, image, or media message |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| formal tests of specific variables and effects, performed in a controlled setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| factor that is changed (or not) by the independent variable |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| factor that is predicted to cause change |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the part of a test group that is allowed to continue without intervention so that it can be compared with the experimental group |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the part of a test group that receives the experimental treatment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in an experiment, the process of regulating all factors except for the independent variable |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an ideal whereby researchers identify facts without allowing their own personal beliefs or biases to interfere |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| research designed to gather knowledge that can be used to create some sort of change |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the search for knowledge without any agenda or desire to use that knowledge to effect change |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| impartiality, the ability to allow the facts to speak for themselves |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a specific example of reactivity, in which the desired effect is the result not of the independent variable but of the research itself |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the tendency of people and events to react to the process of being studied |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the extent to which the participants in a research project are unaware of the project or its goals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ethical guidelines for researchers to consult as they design a project |
|
|
Term
| INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD |
|
Definition
| a group of scholars within a university who meet regularly to review and approve the research proposals of their colleagues and make recommendations for how to protect human subjects |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the entire way of life of a group of people (including both material and symbolic elements) that acts as a lens through which one views the world and is passed from one generation to the next |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the principle of using one’s own culture as a means or standard by which to evaluate another group or individual, leading to the view that cultures other than one’s own are abnormal or inferior |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the principle of understanding other cultures on their own terms, rather than judging or evaluating according to one’s own culture |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the objects associated with a cultural group, such as tools, machines, utensils, buildings, and artwork; any physical object to which we give social meaning |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the ideas associated with a cultural group, including ways of thinking (beliefs, values, and assumptions) and ways of behaving (norms, interactions, and communication) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a symbol that stands for or conveys an idea |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the ways in which people use their bodies to communicate without words; actions that have symbolic meaning |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a system of communication using vocal sounds, gestures, or written symbols; the basis of symbolic culture and the primary means through which we communicate with one another and perpetuate our culture |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the idea that language structures thought and that ways of looking at the world are embedded in language |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a common type of formally defined norm providing an explicit statement about what is permissible and what is illegal in a given society |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a norm ingrained so deeply that even thinking about violating it evokes strong feelings of disgust, horror, or revulsion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ideas about what is desirable or contemptible and right or wrong in a particular group; they articulate the essence of everything that a cultural group cherishes and honors |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a rule or guideline regarding what kinds of behavior are acceptable and appropriate within a culture |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a loosely enforced norm involving common customs, practices, or procedures that ensure smooth social interaction and acceptance |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a norm that carries great moral significance, is closely related to the core values of a cultural group, and often involves severe repercussions for violators |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| positive or negative reactions to the ways that people follow or disobey norms, including rewards for conformity and punishments for violations |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the values, norms, and practices of the group within society that is most powerful (in terms of wealth, prestige, status, influence, etc.) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the formal and informal mechanisms used to elicit conformity to values and norms and thus increase social cohesion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a policy that values diverse racial, ethnic, national, and linguistic backgrounds and so encourages the retention of cultural differences within society rather than assimilation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| term developed by Antonio Gramsci to describe the cultural aspects of social control, whereby the ideas of the dominant social group are accepted by all of society |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a group within society that openly rejects and / or actively opposes society’s values and norms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a group within society that is differentiated by its distinctive values, norms, and lifestyle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| clashes within mainstream society over the values and norms that should be upheld |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the norms, values, and patterns of behavior that members of a society believe should be observed in principle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the norms, values, and patterns of behavior that actually exist within a society (which may or may not correspond to the society’s ideals) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| material artifacts and the knowledge and techniques required to use them |
|
|
Term
| TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISM |
|
Definition
| the notion that developments in technology provide the primary driving force behind social change |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process by which cultures that were once unique and distinct become increasingly similar |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the dissemination of material and symbolic culture (tools and technology, beliefs and behavior) from one group to another |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the imposition of one culture’s beliefs and practices on another culture through mass media and consumer products rather than by military force |
|
|
