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The Cardiovascular System
UCCS Bio 2020 Lykins- Chp 18 + 17.21, Exam 2
163
Anatomy
Undergraduate 1
03/03/2014

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Term
The fetal foramen ovale becomes what in the adult?
Definition
fossa ovalis
Term
What causes the ductus arteriosus to constrict and close, and what does it become in the adult?
Definition
rising oxygen levels
Ligamentum arteriosum
Term
Ventricular septal defects
Definition
Congenital cardiac defect where there are openings in interventricular septum
Term
Patent foramen ovale
Definition
Congenital cardiac defect where the passageway remains open, and the left ventricle must work harder to provide adequate systemic flow
Term
Patent ductus arteriosus
Definition
Congenital cardiac defect where the passageway remains open, and blood is not adequately oxygenated and skin bluish
Term
Tetralogy of Fallot
Definition
Complex group of congenital cardiac defects where the pulmonary trunk is abnormally narrow (stenosis), interventricular septum is incomplete, aorta originates where interventricular septum normally ends, and the right ventricle is enlarged
Term
Atrioventricular septal defect
Definition
Congenital cardiac defect where both atria and ventricles are incompletely separated
Term
Transposition of great vessels
Definition
Congenital cardiac defect where the aorta is connected to right ventricle, and the pulmonary artery is connected to left ventricle
Term
What surrounds the heart, and what is it made of?
Definition
pericardial sac containing serous fluid: outer parietal pericardium and dense fibrous layer
Term
outer layer of the heart
Definition
epicardium (visceral pericardium), a serous membrane
Term
middle heart layer
Definition
myocardium (muscular wall) containing cardiac muscle tissue, blood vessels, and nerves
Term
inner layer of the hert
Definition
endocardium; forms endothelium continuous with the blood vessel endothelium
Term
What is the heart layer that dies when you have a heart attack?
Definition
myocardium
Term
Muscle tissue prefers what for energy when it needs them?
Definition
w-3 fatty acids
Term
ways cardiac muscle tissue differs from skeletal muscle
Definition
smaller cell size; single, centrally located nucleus; branching interconnections between cells; and specialized intercellular connections called intercalated discs
Term
Cardiac muscle cells are almost totally dependent on what energy source?
Definition
aerobic metabolism (ATP)
Term
Sarcoplasm of cardiac muscle cells contain
Definition
large numbers of mitochondria and abundant reserves of myoglobin that store O2
Term
Cardiac muscle cells are richly supplied with what due to the high demand for nutrients and O2?
Definition
capillaries
Term
At intercalated discs, cardiac muscle cells are bound together by what? function
Definition
gap junctions and desmosomes; direct electrical connection for action potentials
Term
functional syncytium
Definition
cardiac muscle cells are mechanically, chemically, and electrically connected to one another; resembles a single, enormous muscle cell
Term
parietal pericardium
Definition
not a heart wall layer, but it is a serous membrane continuous with the visceral pericardium and in contact with the epicardium; lines the fibrous pericardial sac (part of peritoneum)
Term
mediastinum
Definition
region between the two pleural cavities; heart is in its anterior portion; contains the great vessels, thymus, esophagus, and trachea
Term
How much pericardial fluid does the pericardial cavity contain?
Definition
15-50 mL
Term
cardiac tamponade
Definition
fluid accumulation within the pericardial cavity, which can restrict movement of the heart
Term
sulci
Definition
shallow grooves that mark the boundaries between the atria and the ventricles, and between the two ventricles
Term
The epicardium connective tissue generally contains a substantial amount of what?
Definition
fat, especially along the sulci
Term
auricle
Definition
expandable extension of the atria
Term
coronary sulcus
Definition
a deep groove that marks the border between the atria and the ventricles (adipose tissue often accumulates here)
Term
ligamentum arteriosum
Definition
the fibrous remnant of a fetal connection between the aorta and the pulmonary trunk that attaches the pulmonary trunk to the aortic arch
Term
anterior interventricular sulcus
Definition
a shallow depression on the anterior surface that marks the boundary between the ventricles
Term
coronary sinus
Definition
carries blood collected from the myocardium by numerous coronary veins and conveys the blood to the R atrium; located in the coronary sulcus
Term
posterior interventricular sulcus
Definition
shallow depression on the posterior surface that marks the boundary between the ventricles
Term
The coronary sulcus contains what vessels?
Definition
coronary arteries
Term
The myocardium needs its own, separate blood supply, which is provided by what?
Definition
coronary circulation
Term
Blood flow may increase to what at max exertion?
Definition
9x that of resting level
Term
R coronary artery
Definition
supplies blood to the R atrium, portions of both ventricles, and portions of the conducting system
Term
marginal arteries
Definition
come from R coronary artery and supply the surface of the R ventricle
Term
L coronary artery
Definition
supplies blood to the L ventricle, L atrium, and the interventricular septum
Term
The L coronary artery divides into
Definition
circumflex artery and anterior interventricular artery (within the interventricular surface)
Term
circumflex artery
Definition
branch of the L coronary artery that curves to the left around the coronary sulcus to meet the R coronary artery branches
Term
posterior interventricular artery
Definition
supplies blood to the interventricular septum and adjacent portions of the posterior heart
Term
anterior cardiac veins
Definition
drain the anterior surface of the R ventricle
Term
great cardiac vein
Definition
drains blood from the region supplied by the anterior interventricular artery
Term
coronary sinus as a vein (and pre branches)
Definition
an expanded posterior vein that opens into the R atrium; becomes posterior, middle, and small cardiac veins
Term
posterior cardiac vein
Definition
drains the area supplied by the circumflex artery and empties into the coronary sinus
Term
middle cardiac vein
Definition
drains the area supplied by the posterior interventricular artery and empties in the coronary sinus
Term
small cardiac vein
Definition
receives blood from the posterior surfaces of the R atrium and ventricle and empties into the coronary sinus
Term
connects and separates the two atria
Definition
interatrial septum
Term
separates the ventricles
Definition
much thicker interventricular septum
Term
atrioventricular (AV) valves
Definition
folds of fibrous tissue that extend into the openings between the atria and the ventricles; send blood to the R ventricle from the R atrium and permit blood flow in only 1 direction (atrium to ventricle)
Term
pectinate muscles
Definition
prominent muscular ridges in the anterior atrial wall and the inner surface of the auricle
Term
Blood travels from the R atrium into the R ventricle though a broad opening bounded by the _____.
Definition
R atrioventricular valve (tricuspid valve)
Term
chordae tendineae
Definition
tendinous connective tissue fibers that attach to the free edge of each cusp and originate at the conical muscle projections called papillary muscles
Term
The superior portion of the R ventricle tapers toward what, where blood goes through to get to the pulmonary trunk?
Definition
pulmonary valve aka pulmonary semilunar valve
Term
The _____ receives blood from pulmonary veins and sends it to the _____.
Definition
L atrium
L ventricle
Term
left ventricle
Definition
much larger than the right; thick, muscular walls enable it to develop sufficient pressure to push blood through the large systemic circuit
Term
Why does the R ventricle only need a small amount of pressure?
Definition
It only needs to get blood to the lungs
Term
L atrioventricular valve
Definition
bicuspid valve; permits the glow of blood from the L atrium into the L ventricle but also prevents backflow during ventricular contraction
Term
trabeculae carnae
Definition
series of muscular ridges and holes on the inner surfaces of the L and R ventricles
Term
Blood leaves the L ventricle through the _____ and then goes into the _____.
Definition
aortic (semilunar) valve
ascending aorta
Term
aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves
Definition
half-moon shaped; don't require muscular braces because the cups are stable; prevent backflow into the ventricles
Term
What is the AV valve action during atrial contraction and ventricular relaxation?
Definition
open; b.p. from contracting atria pushes cusps apart
Term
What is the AV valve action during atrial relaxation and ventricular contraction?
Definition
closed; b.p. from contracting ventricles pushes cusps together and papillary muscles tense, preventing cusps from swinging into the atria (thus not allowing backflow or regurgitation)
Term
cardiac skeleton
Definition
flexible connective tissues in which all valves are encircled and supported; also surrounds aorta and pulmonary trunk
Term
valvular heart disease (VHD)
Definition
when valve function has deteriorated to where the heart can't maintain adequate blood flow; in severe cases, replacement with a prosthetic valve from a pig or cow may be necessary
Term
arteriosclerosis
Definition
thickening or toughening of artery walls
Term
Related complications of what disease leads to half of all US deaths?
Definition
arteriosclerosis
Term
Arteriosclerosis of coronary vessels is responsible for what disease?
Definition
coronary artery disease (CAD)
Term
Arteriosclerosis of brain arteries can lead to what?
Definition
strokes
Term
atherosclerosis
Definition
formation of lipid deposits in the tunica media of arteries associated with tunica intima damage
Term
What is the most common form of arteriosclerosis?
Definition
atherosclerosis
Term
What are some treatments for atherosclerosis?
Definition
removing the damaged vessel[s], bypassing it, stenting it, or compressing plaque with balloon angioplasty
Term
coronary artery disease (CAD)
Definition
areas of partial blockage of coronary circulation (arteriosclerosis), leading to decreased blood flow to the area (coronary ischemia)
Term
What is a possible treatment for CAD?
Definition
insertion of a wire mesh tube (stent) to hold the vessel open
Term
systole
Definition
contraction; chamber contracts and pushes blood into an adjacent chamber or an arterial trunk
Term
diastole
Definition
relaxation; chamber fills with blood and prepares for the next contraction
Term
What is the general order of the cardiac phases?
Definition
atrial systole, atrial diastole, ventricular systole (2 phases), ventricular diastole with isovolumetric relaxation
Term
main heart sounds
Definition
S1: lubb; start of ventricular contraction, produced as AV valves close
S2: dubb; semilunar valves close
Term
cardiac output (CO)
Definition
heart rate x stroke volume (volume ejected from the L ventricle in 1 beat)
Term
CO is the best overall indicator of what?
Definition
peripheral blood flow
Term
CO is a _____, not _____, value.
Definition
dynamic
static
Term
conduction system
Definition
a network of specialized cardiac muscle cells responsible for initiating and distributing stimuli to contract
Term
What are the 5 components of the conduction system?
Definition
SA node, internodal pathways, AV node, AV bundle and branches, and Purkinje fibers
Term
What is the pacemaker?
Definition
the sinoatrial (SA) node; nervous inputs modulate it but don't send the signal to beat
Term
AV node
Definition
contains pacemaker cells for backup if SA node is damaged; can maintain 40-60 bpm and can conduct impulses @ 230/min. (max heart rate)
Term
AV bundle and branches
Definition
located in interventricular septum; normally the only electrical connection between atria and ventricles
Term
Purkinje fibers
Definition
large conducting cells, as fast as small myelinated axons
Term
general conduction process
Definition
SA node generates action potential, goes through internodal pathway, gets to AV node (where a delay and atrial contraction occur), interventricular septum/ AV bundle and branches/ Purkinje fibers (ventricular contraction)
Term
In skeletal muscle contractions, the refractory period may be over, but it hasn't reached _____ yet.
Definition
peak tension
Term
In cardiac muscle contractions, an action potential is _____, and when peak tension is over, it's still in _____.
Definition
prolonged
absolute refractory period
Term
What happens because pacemaker cells in the SA and AV nodes can't maintain a stable resting potential?
Definition
they're always gradually depolarizing, leading to threshold, called prepotential or pacemaker potential
Term
factors that change the rate of depolarization and repolarization will change the time to threshold: parasympathetic stimulation
Definition
binding of ACh from parasympathetic neurons opens K+ channels, slowing HR, leading to slowing of depolarization (more negative and further from threshold)
Term
factors that change the rate of depolarization and repolarization will change the time to threshold: sympathetic stimulation
Definition
binding of NE to beta-1 receptors leads to the opening of positive ion channels and increased HR, leading to increased rate of depolarization
Term
Both autonomic divisions have cardiac centers where?
Definition
in the hypothalamus
Term
Sympathetic innervation arrives in _____ nerves, and these sympathetic efferent neurons originate in _____.
Definition
cardiac nerves
cardiac acceleratory center in the medulla oblongata
Term
Sympathetic innervation has to do with what ganglion, and it innervates what?
Definition
cervical sympathetic ganglion
nodes, the conduction system, and the myocardium
Term
Parasympathetic innervation arrives in _____ nerve, synapsing in _____, and these parasympathetic efferent neurons originate in _____.
Definition
the vagus nerve (X)
the cardia plexus
the cardioinhibitory center in the medulla oblongata
Term
Sympathetic innervation innervates what?
Definition
nodes and the conduction system only
Term
Normally the resting HR is _____ than the intrinsic rate because which type of stimulation dominates at rest?
Definition
slower
parasympathetic
Term
What kind of filling occurs during ventricular diastole?
Definition
passive
Term
If comparing stroke volume to pumping air into a bike tire, the amount pumped varies with what?
Definition
pump handle movement
Term
end diastolic volume (EDV)
Definition
blood in ventricle at the end of ventricular diastole
Term
ventricular ejection
Definition
as pump handle (bicycle analogy) comes down, air is forced out
Term
Is the end systolic volume (ESV) zero?
Definition
no- with the pump handle fully depressed, some fluid remains
Term
stroke volume
Definition
blood pumped out: EDV-ESV
Term
filling time
Definition
duration of ventricular diastole
Term
preload
Definition
amount of myocardial stretching
Term
In terms of preload, what happens with greater EDV?
Definition
more filling, ventricular muscle cells approach their optimal length to generate more power
Term
contractility
Definition
amount of force produced during a contraction that varies with autonomic stimulation as well as with many hormones and drugs
Term
afterload
Definition
tension necessary for ventricular ejection, increased by any factor that restricts arterial blood flow
Term
electrocardiograms (EKG)
Definition
record electrical activity of the heart from the body surface through time; not pumping performance
Term
P wave of EKG
Definition
atrial depolarization; atria begin contracting about 25 msec after this starts
Term
QRS complex of EKG
Definition
atrial repolarization and ventricular depolarization; larger wave due to larger ventricles added to atrial activity; ventricles begin contracting shortly after the R wave peak
Term
T wave of EKG
Definition
ventricular repolarization
Term
P-R interval of EKG
Definition
start of atrial depolarization to start of ventricular depolarization
Term
Q-T interval of EKG
Definition
time for ventricles to undergo a single cycle
Term
premature atrial contractions (PACs)
Definition
normal atrial rhythm is momentarily interrupted by a "surprise" atrial contraction; often occurs in healthy individuals from stress, caffeine, and various drugs
Term
paroxysmal atrial tachycardia (PAT)
Definition
premature atrial contraction that triggers a flurry of atrial activity; ventricles still able to keep pace, and HR increases to 180 bpm
Term
atrial fibrillation (AF)
Definition
impulses move over the atrial surface at rates of 500 bpm, atrial wall quivers, ventricular rate can't follow the atrial rate and may remain within normal limits, and atria are nonfunctional
Term
Single PVCs are _____ and not _____.
Definition
common
dangerous
Term
ventricular tachycardia (VT)
Definition
4+ PVCs without intervening normal beats; aka V-tach; may indicate serious cardiac problems
Term
ventricular fibrilaation (VF)
Definition
responsible for a condition known as cardiac arrest; rapidly fatal because ventricles quiver and stop pumping blood
Term
Which is higher: arterial or venous pressure?
Definition
arterial because it must push blood through smaller and smaller arteries and then through innumerable capillaries
Term
As blood moves toward the heart, vessels become increasingly _____, and resistance increasingly _____.
Definition
larger
lower
Term
3 factors of total peripheral resistance (and define)
Definition
vascular resistance (largest component), viscosity, and turbulence
Term
The longer the vessel, the _____ the resistance because _____.
Definition
greater, greater surface area in contact with blood
Term
The factors of vascular resistance are what (and define)?
Definition
vessel length (friction b/w moving blood and walls of vessel); vessel diameter (friction b/w layers of fluid moving at different speeds)
Term
The layer of blood closest to the vessel wall is slowed down by friction with the _____.
Definition
endothelial surface
Term
The friction having to do with the diameter of the vessel gradually decreases and distance from the vessel wall _____.
Definition
increases
Term
Do differences in vessel length or diameter have more significant effects on resistance?
Definition
diameter
Term
If 2 vessels are of equal length, but one is 2x as long, what is the resistance of the longer vessel compared to the shorter one?
Definition
2x
Term
If 2 vessels are of equal length, but one is 2x the diameter of the other, what is the resistance of the smaller vessel compared to the larger one?
Definition
16x
Term
resistance (R) equation
Definition
R = 1/(r^4)
Term
low viscosity = ______ pressure
Definition
low (low viscosity means very fluid like water)
Term
How much pressure does the heart generate as it pushes blood into the aorta?
Definition
100 mm/Hg
Term
Pressure _____ at each branching of the arterial system.
Definition
decreases
Term
Blood flow _____ in the venous system, even with _____ pressure. Explain
Definition
increases; decreasing; increase in diameter, decrease in resistance
Term
systolic and diastolic pressure
Definition
systolic: peak bp during ventricular systole
diastolic: min. bp during ventricular diastole
Term
Arterial pressure _____ during systole and _____ during diastole as what happens?
Definition
increases; decreases; elastic arterial walls stretch and recoil
Term
mean arterial pressure (MAP)
Definition
calculated by adding 1/3 of pulse pressure to diastolic pressure
Term
pulse pressure
Definition
systolic pressure - diastolic pressure
Term
capillary hydrostatic pressure (CHP)
Definition
blood pressure within capillary beds provides the driving force for filtration
Term
filtration
Definition
CHP pushes water and soluble molecules out of the bloodstream and into interstitial fluid (only small solutes can cross the endothelium)
Term
Diffusion
Definition
osmosis from high to low concentrations; occurs faster with smaller distances, higher concentration gradients, and smaller molecules
Term
How can lipids and lipid soluble materials cross capillary walls?
Definition
diffusion through the endothelial plasma membrane
Term
How do gases cross capillary walls?
Definition
diffusion only
Term
At which end of a capillary does filtration predominate?
Definition
the arterial end; CHP is highest, so it pushes the water out
Term
Higher filtration means _____ plasma osmolarity (aka ?).
Definition
higher; blood colloid osmotic pressure (lets water in)
Term
net filtration pressure (NFP)
Definition
difference between CHP and BCOP (NFP = CHP - BCOP); high at start of capillary, becomes more negative along capillary as CHP decreases and BCOP increases
Term
Where in a capillary does NFP = 0?
Definition
about 2/3 of the way, so there's no net movement
Term
Where in the capillary does reabsorption predominate?
Definition
in the final segment; CHP falls below BCOP and water flows back into it
Term
difference b/w CHP and BCOP
Definition
CHP pushes water out and BCOP draws water back in
Term
What occurs in edema?
Definition
CHP increases and BCOP decreases, causing fluid to move out of the blood and into peripheral tissues where it builds up
Term
tissue perfusion
Definition
blood flow through tissues
Term
two cardiovascular regulatory mechanisms
Definition
1st pathway is auto regulation, 2nd is central regulation
Term
local auto regulation
Definition
precapillary sphincters open and close in response to chemicals in interstitial fluid
Term
vasodilators and their role in local autoregulator
Definition
factors that promote dilation of blood vessels; local ones increase blood flow through their tissue of origin
Term
central regulation
Definition
if auto regulation fails, natural and endocrine mechanisms activate cardiovascular centers that control the degree of peripheral vasoconstriction
Term
What is the primary vasoconstrictor?
Definition
NE
Term
endocrine responses of the kidneys to long-term decreases in b.p. and volume
Definition
renin is released, which activates angiotensin I, which is converted in lung capillaries to angiotensin II by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)
Term
High b.p. and volume triggers the release of what?
Definition
natriuretic peptides: atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) which is produced by cardiac muscle cells in the R atrium and brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) which is produced by ventricular muscle cells
Term
natrium
Definition
Na+ into urine; where NA+ goes, water goes
Term
chemoreceptor reflexes
Definition
respond to changes in CO2, O2, or pH levels in blood and CSF; located in carotid bodies and aortic bodies on the ventrolateral surfaces of the medulla oblongata
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