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Test #2, Ch. 15 Review
Lecture review
123
Anatomy
Undergraduate 1
03/08/2010

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Cards

Term
What are the 2 categories sense organs fall into?
Definition

o   General Sense Organs

o   Special Sense organs

Term
List examples of general and special senses
Definition

o   General: Touch, temperature, pain

o   Special: Vision, hearing, balance, taste, smell

Term
What is the function of sensory receptors?
Definition
Make it possible for body to respond to internal and external stimuli
Term
Define receptor potential
Definition
Local potential that results from adequate stimulus on a receptor.
Term
Define Graded response:
Definition

     the more of a stimulus you have, the greater the response is going to be.

Term
What do sensory impulses that end in the brainstem affect?
Definition

o   Affect “vital sign” reflexes

o   Heart or respiratory rate

Term
What do sensory impulses that end in the thalamus affect?
Definition
Trigger imprecise or “crude” sensations
Term
What do sensory impulses that end in the cerebral cortex affect?
Definition

o   Precise and specific awareness

§  Type of sensation

§  Exact location

§  Level of intensity

Term
Define adaptation and give an example:
Definition

·      Process by which magnitude of receptor potential decreases over time in response to a continuous stimulus (example: clothing)

Term
Define perception
Definition
 remaining aware of a particular sensation over time and interpreting that sensation
Term
What are the differences in distribution of special sense receptors and general sense receptors?
Definition

o   Special Sense Receptors:

§  Grouped into localized areas

§  Nasal mucosa, tongue

§  Grouped into complex organs

§  Eye, ear

o   General Sense Receptors

§  Widely distributed throughout body

§  Skin, mucosa, connective tissue, muscles, tendons, joints, and viscera

Term
Define the two-point discrimination test
Definition

Subject reports number of pressure points felt when skin is touched with a drawing compass

o  Fingertips – can discriminate between them even at 1/8 of an inch apart

o   Back – has to be at least 1 inch apart to discriminate between the two points

Term
What are the three categories of receptors based on location?
Definition

o   Exteroceptors

o   Visceroceptors (interoceptors)

o   Proprioceptors 

Term
Where are exteroceptors located and what senses do they detect?
Definition

o   Located at or near body surface

o   Respond most frequently to stimuli that arise external to the body (example: temperature)

o Someo   special sense receptors fall into this category

§  Those that detect pressure, touch, pain, and temperature

Term
What is another name for exteroceptors?
Definition
cutaneous receptors
Term
Where are visceroceptors located and what senses do they detect?
Definition

 

o   Located internally, often within viscera

o   Provide info about internal environment, such as stimuli like pressure, stretching, and chemical changes that can originate in diverse internal organs

Also involved in mediating sensations such as hunger and thirst

 

 

Term
Where are proprioceptors located and what senses do they detect?
Definition

 

§  Location limited to skeletal muscles, joint capsules, and tendons

o   Provide info about body movement, orientation in space, and muscle stretch

 

Term
What are the two types of proprioceptors and what is the difference between them?
Definition

o   Tonic proprioceptors

§  Nonadapting

§  Allow us to locate body parts (arm, foot) at rest without looking

o   Phasic proprioceptors

§  Rapidly adapting

§  Triggered only when there is a change in position

§  Permit us to feel changing position of our body parts during continuous movement

Term
What are the six categories of receptors based on stimulus detected?
Definition

 Mechanoreceptors

Chemoreceptors

Thermoreceptors

Nociceptors

Photoreceptors

Osmoreceptors

Term
What are the two categories of receptors based on structure?
Definition

Free nerve endings

Encapsulated nerve endings

Term
Define nociceptors:
Definition
Primary sensory receptors for pain 
Term
What are the two types of nerve fibers that carry impulses from nociceptors to the brain? Know the difference between the two.
Definition

o   Acute or fast (A) pain fibers

§  Concentrated in skin, mucous membranes, and other superficial areas

§  Fast pain described as “sharp” pain associated with superficial injury or trauma

§  Slamming finger in car door

§  Somatic pain

o   Chronic or slow (B) pain fibers

§  Develops more slowly over time

§  Described as dull or aching

§  Visceral pain

§  Originates deeper in the visceral structure

§  Can be severe if caused by intestinal obstruction or passage of kidney stone or gallstone

Term
What tissue of the body doesn’t contain nociceptors
Definition

o   Brain tissue

Term
Define referred pain
Definition

Pain felt on or near surface of body resulting from stimulation of nociceptors in deep structures

Term
Do thermoreceptors adapt quickly?
Definition
Both hot and cold adapt quickly
Term
What are root hair plexuses and how are they activated?
Definition

o   Rapidly adapting free nerve endings

o   Activated when very slight skin movements bends or deforms hair shaft or follicle surrounded by receptor

Term
How are itch sensations generally caused?
Definition

o   Generally caused by chemical irritation of the nerve endings by inflammatory chemicals

Term
What is discriminative touch?
Definition
“Light touch”
Term
what is descriminative touch mediated by?
Definition

§  Mediated by tactile disks

·         Merkel disk

·         Flattened or disk-shaped variation of free nerve endings

Term
What two cells make up the tactile receptor unit?
Definition

Tactile epithelial cell

Tactile disk

Term
What are tactile corpuscles?
Definition
Encapsulated end organs 
Term
What are bulboid corpuscles?
Definition

 

  1 important anatomical variant of the tactile corpuscle

Involved in touch and low frequency vibration

 

Term
What are bulbous corpuscles?
Definition

o   2nd anatomical variant of tactile corpuscle

Mediate sensations of crude, heavy, and persistent touch

Slow adapting ( hold steering wheel for a long time and still know it is there)

Term
What are lamellar corpuscles?
Definition

 Respond quickly to deep pressure sensations, high-frequency vibration, and stretch

Adapt quickly

Term
What are the two types of stretch receptors?
Definition

Muscle spindles

                 Golgi tendon receptors

Term
Define stretch reflex
Definition

if length of muscle is stretched and exceeds a certain limit, result is stretch reflex.

o   Shortens that muscle group

o   Aids in maintenance of posture or positioning of body or extremities that often opposes gravity

                     This is done subconsciously 

Term
Define golgi tendon reflex
Definition

o   Act in a way that opposes muscle spindles

o   Stimulated by excessive muscle contraction

o   Cause muscles to relax

o   Protects muscles from tearing internally or pulling away from tendinous points of attachments to bone due to excessive contractile force

Term
Define olfaction
Definition
sense of smell
Term
What three components make up the olfactory epithelium?
Definition

o   Epithelial support cells

o   Basal cells

o   Olfactory sensory neurons

Term
What is the typical shape of olfactory neurons?
Definition

o   Bipolar, have cilia

Term
Where is olfactory epithelium located?
Definition
upper portion of nasal cavity
Term
Explain why olfactory epethelium makes it necessary to sniff to smell better
Definition

§  Most of air inhaled flows around and down nasal passageways

·         Does not contact protein odorant receptors in cell membrane of odorant neurons

Term
Why do olfactory receptors undergo rapid adaptation?
Definition

o   Due to inhibition of action potentials by granule cells in olfactory bulbs

o   Fatigue of odorant receptors function caused by ongoing stimulation of olfactory sensory neurons

Term
How are senses of smell and taste closely related?
Definition

o   Neural inputs from both olfactory and gustatory (taste) receptors travel in common areas of the brain

§  olfactory sensations are produced in the temporal lobes

§  Taste sensations are produced  in the parietal lobes

Term
What are the sense organs for our sense of taste?
Definition
Taste buds
Term
Define gustation
Definition
sense of taste
Term
What are the four classes of taste buds based on structure?
Definition

o   Fungiform papillae

o   Filliform papillae

o   Foliate papillae

Circumvallate papillae

Term
What is the name of a chemical that stimulates taste buds?
Definition
Tastants
Term
What are gustatory cells?
Definition
Chemoreceptors
Term
What are the five primary taste sensations?
Definition
Sour, sweet, bitter, umami (savory), and salty
Term
What are the three cranial nerves that are involved in transmitting signals for taste?
Definition

o   Facial nerve

o   Glossopharyngeal nerve

o   Vagus nerve

Term
which area of the tongue (or other structure) does facial nerve transmit signals from?
Definition

 

§  Anterior 2/3 of tongue

 

Term
which area of the tongue (or other structure) does Glossopharangeal nerve transmit signals from?
Definition

§  Posterior 1/3 of tongue

Term
which area of the tongue (or other structure) does vagus nerve transmit signals from?
Definition

§  Carry taste sensations from limited number of taste buds located in walls of pharynx and on the epiglottis

Term
Define flavor
Definition
combined sense of smell and taste
Term
What two senses does the ear provide?
Definition

o   Hearing

o   Equilibrium

Term
What receptor in the ear is responsible for both of these senses?
Definition

o   Hair cells (mechanoreceptors)

Term
What are the three anatomical divisions of the ear?
Definition

 External ear

Middle ear

                   Inner ear

Term
What are the two divisions of the external ear?
Definition

1. Auricle or pinna

                 2.  External acoustic meatus (ear canal)

Term
What is the tympanic membrane?
Definition
eardrum
Term
What are the three auditory ossicles?
Definition

1. Malleus (hammer)

2. Incus (anvil)

3. Stapes (stirrup)

Term
What are the openings of the middle ear?
Definition

o   External acoustic meatus

o   Oval window

o   Round window

Auditory tube

Term
What is the function of the auditory or Eustachian tube?
Definition

§  Equalizing pressure between inner and outer surface of the eardrum

Term
What are the two main parts of the inner ear? What structures are in each of these parts?
Definition

o   Bony labyrinth

§  Vestibule

§  Cochlea

§  Semicircular canals

o   Membranous labyrinth (inside the body labyrinth)

§  Utricle and saccule (inside the vestibule)

§  Cochlear duct (inside cochlea)

§  Semicircular ducts (inside semicircular canals)

Term
What is endolymph?
Definition

·         Clear and potassium-rich fluid that fills membranous labyrinth

Term
What is perilymph?
Definition

o   Similar to CSF

o   Surrounds membranous labyrinth

o   Fills space between membranous tunnels and body walls that surround them

Term
What structure of the inner ear is the only one involved in hearing?
Definition
Cochlear duct
Term
What are the names of the two sections the cochlear duct divides the cochlea into?
Definition

o   Scala vestibuli (vestibular duct) is upper section

o   Scala tympani (tympanic duct) is lower section

Term
What is the roof of the cochlear duct called?
Definition
vestibular membrane
Term
What is the floor of the cochlear duct called?
Definition
basilar membrane
Term
What is the organ of Corti?
Definition

 

o   hearing sense organ

o   AKA spiral organ

 

Term
Define Volume:
Definition

 

o   Volume: height or amplitude of sound wave

 

Term
Define Pitch:
Definition

o   frequency of sound waves

Term
The basilar membrane’s width is not uniform. What functional purpose does this serve?
Definition

o   Different frequencies of sound cause different places of basilar membrane to vibrate and bulge upward

o   This explains how different groups of hair cells respond to specific frequencies of sound

Term
How are differences in volume perceived?
Definition
Different degrees of loudness is determined by movement of more hair cells on basilar membrane because of high sound wave amplitude at any particular point 
Term
Describe the pathway of sound waves from when they enter the external auditory canal to where they finally hit the round window
Definition

o   Enter external auditory canal

o   Hit tympanic membrane, causing it to vibrate

§  Moves malleus à incus à stapes through oval window

Term
Where are the sense organs for equilibrium located?
Definition
in the vestibule and semicircular canals
Term
Define static equilibrium:
Definition

o   Senses position of head relative to gravity

o   Sense acceleration of deceleration of body

Term
Define dynamic equilibrium
Definition

o   Maintains balance when head or body itself is rotated or suddenly moved

Term
Define macula
Definition
small patchlike strip of epithelium found within utricle and saccule 
Term
What are otoliths
Definition
ear stones
Term
Define righting reflexes
Definition
Muscular responses to restore body and body parts to normal positions
Term
What is the crista ampullaris?
Definition

o   aka ampullary crest

o   Located in ampulla of each semicircular duct

Term
Define ophthalmology
Definition
medical practice specialty concerned with pathologic conditions of the eye
Term
What are the four accessory structures of the eye?
Definition

o   Eyebrows

o   Eyelashes

o   Eyelids

o   Lacrimal apparatus

Term
What are the three external eye structures
Definition

o   Sclera

o   Iris

o   Pupil 

Term
Define palpebrae:
Definition
eyelid
Term
Define conjunctiva
Definition
mucous membrane that lines each lid
Term
Define palpebral fissure
Definition
opening between eyelids
Term
What is the function of the lacrimal apparatus
Definition

·         Consist of structures that secrete tears and drain them from surface of eyeball

Term
What is the function of the extrinsic eye muscles
Definition
Move eyeball in any direction; voluntary
Term
What is the function of the intrinsic eye muscles?
Definition
Control iris and ciliary muscles; involuntary
Term
What are the muscles of the intrinsic eye muscle group?
Definition

iris

ciliary muscles

Term
What are the three layers of tissues that compose the eyeball?
Definition

o   Fibrous layer


o   Vascular layer


o   Inner layer


Term
What is the cornea?
Definition

o   anterior portion of the sclera

o   Lies over colored portion of the eye, the iris

o   Transparent

Term
What is the iris
Definition
Colored part of eye
Term
What is the pupil
Definition
Hole-shaped opening in middle of iris
Term
What is the retina
Definition
Incomplete innermost coat of eyeball
Term
What three layers of neurons make up the sensory retina?
Definition

o   Photoreceptor cells

§  deepest

o   Bipolar cells

o   Ganglion cells

Term
What are the two types photoreceptor cells of the eye called?
Definition

o   Rods

o   Cones

Term
Why is the optic disk known as the blind spot?
Definition
Doesn't contain photoreceptors (rods or cones); no light can be seen
Term
What are the 2 main cavities of the eyeball?
Definition

anterior cavity

posterior cavity

Term
What are the 2 subdivisions of the anterior cavity of the eyeball?
Definition

anterior chamber

posterior chamber

Term
Define aqueous humor
Definition

·         Clear, watery substance; Often leaks out when eye is injured 

Term
Define vitreous humor
Definition

·         Consistency of soft gelatin; Along with aqueous humor, helps maintain sufficient intraocular pressure to prevent eyeball collapse

Term
What causes glaucoma?
Definition

·         Normally, rate of aqueous humor formation equals the rate of its draining out of the anterior chamber. Sometimes, things can go wrong that would cause this to not balance and intraocular pressure increase. If untreated can lead to retinal damage and blindness. Excess formation or decreased drainage is the immediate cause.     

Term
What are the four processes focus light rays so that a clear image is formed on the retina?
Definition

o   Refraction of light rays

o   Accommodation of the lens

o   Constriction of the pupil

o   Convergence of the eyes

Term
What are the refracting media of the eye?
Definition

o   Cornea

o   Aqueous humor

o   Lens

o   Vitreous humor 

Term
Define visual acuity
Definition
clarity of vision
Term
Know what 20/20, 20/15 and 20/200 mean in terms of visual acuity
Definition

§  20/20 (normal): someone can see at 20 ft what a person of normal vision could see at 20 ft

§  20/15 (better than normal): individual can see at 20 ft what a normal person would see at 15 ft

§  20/200 (legally blind): 20/200 (legally blind): individ can see only at 20 ft what a normal person could see at 200 ft

Term
What are common errors of refraction?
Definition

o   Nearsightedness (myopia)

o   Farsigntedness (hyperopia)

Astigmatism 

Term
What three changes must occur for near vision?
Definition

o   Increase in curvature of lens

o   Constriction of the pupils

o   Convergence of the 2 eyes

Term
How do the ciliary muscles affect lens shape?
Definition

o   Contraction pulls choroid layer closer to lens

§  Allows lens to bulge

§  Near vision

o   Relaxation increases tension of suspensory ligaments

§  Lens lies flat

§  Far vision

Term
What causes eye strain?
Definition
Occurs due to continual use of the eyes for near work; prolonged contraction of ciliary muscle
Term
Define near reflex
Definition
constriction of pupil for near vision
Term
Define photopupil or papillary light reflex
Definition
constriction of pupil in response to bright light
Term
What is binocular vision and how is it achieved?
Definition

o   Seeing 1 object instead of 2 when both eyes are used

o   Occurs with light from object falls on corresponding spots on the 2 retinas

Term
What is convergence?
Definition
Movement of 2 eyeballs inward so that visual axes converge at the object viewed. The nearer the object, the greater the degree of convergence needed to maintain single vision.
Term
What can all light-sensitive pigmented compounds be broken down into?
Definition

o   glycoprotein (opsin)

o   vitamin A derivative (retinal)

§  Light absorbing portion of all photopigments

Term
What photopigment is found in rods?
Definition
Rhodopsin
Term
Does the brain perceive color or “black and white” vision from rods?
Definition

·         Black and white; sensitive in dark

Term
What are the three types of cones?
Definition

o   Blue-sensitive cones


o   Green-sensitive cones


o   Red-sensitive cones


Term
Does the brain perceive color or “black and white” vision from cones?
Definition
Color; sensitive in light
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