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Test 1
TWU A&P1
122
Anatomy
Undergraduate 1
02/08/2010

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Term
Organization of living things
Definition
Atoms are the smallest chemical units that are then worked into molecules, or groups of atoms. The molecules form a group that work together called an organelle. These organelles are grouped to work together to create cells which are again groups to form tissues. Tissues are groups of cells working together and these tissues working together form an organ or groups of different tissues working together. There are 11 organs systems in our bodies, or groups of organs working together. All of these things together create and organism or an individual.
Term
Intrinsic Regulation
Definition
Intrinsic or auto-regulation is an automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to a change that occurs to the body such as body temp, pH, and fluid balance.
Term
extrinsic regulation
Definition
Extrinsic regulation is response controlled by nervous and endocrine systems.
Term
Negative feedback
Definition
Negative feedback is a response of the effector that negates the stimulus such as the air conditioning working to cool off a room that was suddenly hot. The hot stimulus is negated by the cold response
Term
Positive feedback
Definition
Positive feedback is a response of the effector that reinforces that stimulus such as when you cut your finger. The chemicals released in the original clotting help stimulate more clotting.
Term
Atom
Definition
Atoms are the basis of all elements and are the smallest complete units of elements. Atoms vary in size, weight, and the ways they interact with each other. Atomic weight of these atoms refers to the amount of substance and atomic mass of an atom refers to the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons.
Term
Proton
Definition
Found in the nucleus with the mass of 1 and a charge of +
Term
Neutron
Definition
Found in the nucleus with the mass of 1 and a neutral charge. A change in the number of neutrons doesn’t change the element but does make it an isotope of that element.
Term
Electron
Definition
Found in rings around the nucleus. They have a negligible weight of 1/1840 and a charge of –
Term
Isotopes
Definition
Atoms of an element that possess a different number of neutrons. Have the same atomic number because the number of protons stays the same. The charge of the element is also unaffected.
Term
Atomic Mass
Definition
The sum of all the neutrons and protons in the nucleus of an element
Term
Orbital
Definition
Refers to the area around the nucleus where an electron is most likely found. Chemical behavior of an atom is determined by the number and arrangement of its orbitals
Term
Cation
Definition
Contains more protons than electrons, and carries a positive charge
Term
Anion
Definition
Contains fewer protons than electrons and carries a negative charge
Term
Oxidation
Definition
The loss of an electron through a reaction
Term
Reduction
Definition
The gaining of an electron through a reaction
Term
Molecule
Definition
Refers to a group of atoms held together by energy in a stable association O2
Term
Compound
Definition
Composed of two or more different types of atoms bonded together NaCl
Term
Ionic bond
Definition
Formed because ions of opposite charges attract one another
Term
Covalent bond
Definition
Formed when two or more atoms share pairs of valence electrons and the more electrons involved the stronger the bond will be.
Term
Hydrogen Bond
Definition
In a water molecule both the oxygen and hydrogen atoms attract the shared electrons in the covalent bond (electronegativity)
Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen
Term
Energy
Definition
The power to do work
Term
Work
Definition
A change in mass or direction
Term
Activation Energy
Definition
Chemical reactions in cells cannot start without help activation energy is the energy needed to start a reaction
Term
Exergonic Reaction
Definition
produce more energy than they use
Term
Endergonic reaction
Definition
use more energy than they produce
Term
Organic Molecule
Definition
Molecules based on carbon and hydrogen
Term
Inorganic Molecule
Definition
Molecules not based on carbon and hydrogen
Term
Nutrients
Definition
Essential molecules obtained from food
Term
Metabolites
Definition
Molecules made of broken down in the body
Term
Properties of water
Definition
Solubility
Waters ability to dissolve a solute in a solvent to make a solution
Reactivity
Most body chemistry uses or occurs in water
High heat capacity
Waters ability to absorb and retain heat
Lubrication
To moisten and reduce friction
Term
Electrolytes
Definition
Inorganic ions which conduct electricity in solution, an imbalance in the body would seriously disturb vital body functions
Term
Hydrophilic
Definition
Water loving
Term
Hydrophobic
Definition
Water hating
Term
Types of solution
Definition
Colloid
A solution of very large organic molecules
Suspension
A solution in which particles settle (sediment)
Concentration
The amount of solute in a solvent
Term
pH, acid and base, control of...
Definition
the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution
neutral is 7, balance of H+ and OH-
acid pH is lower than 7, more H+
base pH is higher than 7, more OH-
excess of H+ could damage cells and tissue and alter proteins
acidosis
excess H+ in body fluid
alkalosis
excess of OH- in body fluid
controlling pH
salts, positive or negative ions in solution contain no H+ or OH-
buffers are weak acid/salt compounds that neutralize either strong acid or strong base
Term
Carbohydrates function
Definition
Quick energy sources and components of membranes
Term
Carbohydrates types
Definition
1.Monosaccharides
a. Simple sugars with 3 to 7 carbon bonds (glucose)
2. Disaccharides
a. 2 simple sugars condensed by dehydration synthesis (sucrose)
3. Polysaccharides
a. Chains of many simple sugars (glycogen)
Term
Lipid: Function
Definition
1. Membrane structure
2. Energy storage
3. Chemical messengers
4. Hormones and digestive secretions
5. Insulation and physical protection
Term
Lipid: Types
Definition
1. Fatty Acids
a. Saturated with hydrogen (no double bonds)
b. Unsaturated (double bonds)
2. Eicosanoids
a. Leukotienes
i. Active in immune system
b. Prostaglandins
i. Local hormones
ii. Short-chain fatty acids
c. Glycerides
i. Fatty acids attached to the glycerol molecule
ii. Triglyeride- are the 3 fatty acid tails, fat storage molecules
d. Steroids
i. Cholesterol- component of cell membranes
ii. Estrogens and testosterone- sex hormones
iii. Corticosteroids and calcitrol
1. Metabolic regulation
iv. Bile salts
1. Derived from steroids
e. Phospholipids and Glycolipids
i. Have hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails
ii. Are structural lipids components of cell membranes
Term
Protein Function (7)
Definition
1. Support- structural proteins
2. Movement- contractile proteins
3. Transport- transport proteins
4. Buffering- regulation of pH
5. Metabolic regulation- enzymes
6. Coordination and control- hormones
7. Defense- antibodies
Term
Protein: Characteristics
Definition
1. Most abundant and important organic molecules
2. Made of basic molecules- oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen
3. Building blocks: 20 amino acids
Term
Amino acid structure
Definition
a. Central carbon
b. Hydrogen
c. Amino group
d. Carboxylic acid –COOH
e. Variable R group
Term
Peptide bond
Definition
1. Made by dehydration synthesis between the amino group of one and the carboxylic group of another
Term
Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary structure
Definition
p= long chain
s= hydrogen bonds for spirals or pleats
t= secondary folds into a unique shape
q= final protein shape, several tertiary structures together
Term
protein: shape and function
Definition
1. Function based on shape
2. Shape based on amino acids sequence
Term
Denaturation
Definition
loss of shape and function due to heat or pH
Term
Fibrous proteins
Definition
1. Structural sheets or strands
2. Globular proteins
a. Soluble spheres with active functions
Term
Enzymes
Definition
i. Catalysts lower the activation energy of a chemical reaction
ii. Not changed or used up
Term
Substrates
Definition
reactants in enzymatic reactions
Term
Active site
Definition
location on an enzyme that fits a particular substrate
Term
Helper enzymes (3)
Definition
Cofactor- an ion or molecule that binds to an enzyme before substrates can bind
2. Coenzymes
a. Nonprotein organic cofactors (vitamins)
3. Isozymes
a. 2 enzymes that can catalyze the same reaction
Term
Enzyme (characteristics)
Definition
Specificity- one enzyme catalyzes one reaction
Saturation limits- an enzymes maximum work rate
Regulation- the ability to turn off and on
Term
Nucleic acid
Definition
i. Large organic molecules found in the nucleus which store and process information at the molecular level, DNA RNA
Term
DNA
Definition
1. Determines inherited characteristics
2. Directs protein synthesis
3. Controls enzyme production
4. Controls metabolism
Term
RNA
Definition
1. Codes intermediate steps in protein synthesis
Term
Bases
Definition
1. A with T in DNA A with U in RNA
2. C with G in both DNA and RNA
3. A (adenine) T (thymine) C ( cytosine) G (guanine) U (uracil)
Term
Nucleotides
Definition
1. Building blocks of DNA
2. Sugar, phosphate, nitrogenous base
Term
ADP
Definition
1. Adenosine diphosphate
Term
ATP
Definition
1. Adenosine triphosphate
a. ATPase, the enzyme that catalyzes phophorylation
Term
Somatic cells
Definition
i. All body cells except sex cells
Term
Plasma membrane
Definition
a. Lipids, carbohydrates, functional proteins
Term
Membrane Proteins: Integral Protein
Definition
i. Integral proteins
Term
Membrane Proteins: Peripheral Proteins
Definition
1. Inner or outer surface of the membrane
Term
Function of membrane proteins(6)
Definition
1. Anchoring proteins- attach to inside or outside structures
2. Recognition proteins- label cells normal or abnormal
3. Enzymes- catalyze reactions
4. Receptor proteins- bind and respond to ligands
5. Carrier proteins- transport specific solutes through membrane
6. Channels- regulate water flow and solutes through membrane
Term
Phospolipid bilayer
Definition
a. Hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails
Term
Cytoskeleton
Definition
i. Structural proteins for shape and strength
Term
Cytoskelton: Microtubules
Definition
large hollow tubes of tubulin protein, attach to centrosome, strengthen cell and anchor organelles, move vesicles around
Term
cytoskelton: Intermediate
Definition
midsize durable collagen for strength and shape, stabilize cell position and organelles
Term
cytoskelton microfilaments
Definition
midsize durable collagen for strength and shape, stabilize cell position and organelles
Term
microvilli
Definition
i. Increase surface area for absorption
b. Attach to cytoskeleton
Term
Ribosomes
Definition
i. Build polypeptides in proteins synthesis
ii. Free ribosomes, in cytoplasm, fixed ribosomes, attached to ER
Term
ER (functions)
Definition
a. Synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids
b. Storage of said molecules and materials
c. Transportation of the molecule within the ER
d. Detox
Term
Cisternea (ER)
Definition
storage chambers within the membrane
Term
Smooth ER
Definition
i. No ribosomes
ii. Synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates
1. Phospholipids and cholesterol (membranes)
2. Steroid hormones (reproductive system)
3. Glycerides (storage in liver and fat cells)
4. Glycogen (storage in muscles)
Term
Rough ER
Definition
i. Covered in Ribosomes
ii. Proteins and glycoprotein synthesis
iii. Fold polypeptides protein structures
iv. Encloses products in transport vesicles
Term
Golgi (3 types of vesicles)
Definition
a. Vesicles enter on the forming face and leave on the maturing face
b. Secretory vesicles- Package products to leave the cell
c. Membrane renewal vesicles- add or remove parts of the membrane
d. Transport vesicles- carry materials back and forth from the Golgi
Term
Lysosomes
Definition
a. Contain powerful enzymes to breakdown materials
Term
Lysosomes (primary)
Definition
Formed by the Golgi and inactive enzymes
Term
Lysosomes secondary
Definition
i. Lysosome fused with damaged organelle
ii. Digestive enzymes activated
iii. Toxic chemicals isolated
Term
Exocytosis
Definition
eject secretory products and wastes from cells or body
Term
Autolysis
Definition
Cell self destructs i. Lysosome membranes breakdown
ii. Digestive enzymes released
iii. Cell decomposes and is recycled
Term
Mitochondria
Definition
a. Powerhouse of the cell but cannot function properly without all the organelles
Term
Nucleus
Definition
a. Largest organelle
b. Double membrane, nuclear envelope
c. Pores, communication passages
d. The nucleus contains the DNA to run the cell, nucleoplasm that contains the ions, enzymes, and nucleotides, some RNA is found here
e. Nuclear matrix has support filaments
f. Nucleoli are related to protein production, made of RNA enzymes and histones
i. Synthesize rRNA and ribosomal subunits
Term
DNA organization
Definition
a. Nucleosomes- DNA coiled around histones
b. Chromatin- loosely coiled DNA- cells not dividing
c. Chromsomes- tightly coiled DNA- cells dividing
Term
Genes
Definition
a. DNA instructions for 1 protein
b. Genetic Code
i. Chemical language of DNA instructions- sequence of bases in triplets (3 bases=1 amino acid)
Term
Protein synthesis
Definition
a. Transcription- copies the instructions from DNA to mRNA happens in the nucleus
b. Translation- Ribosome reads codes from mRNA (in cytoplasm) and then assembles amino acids into polypeptide chains
Term
Selective permeability
Definition
a. Allows some materials to move freely but restricts others based on size, charge, shape, and lipid solubility
Term
Transportation
Definition
a. Can be active (needs ATP) or passive (no ATP)
b. Diffusion (passive)
c. Carrier-mediated transport (passive or active)
d. Vesicular transport (active)
Term
Diffusion
Definition
a. Molecules mix randomly
b. Solute spreads through the solvent
c. Eliminates the concentration gradient
d. Solutes move down the concentration gradient
Term
Diffusion rates
Definition
i. Distance
ii. Size smaller= faster
iii. Temp hotter= faster
iv. Gradient size= difference between the side of low concentration and high concentration
v. Electrical forces= opposites attract, same repel
Term
Simple diffusion
Definition
i. Material diffuse through the membrane, lipid soluble compounds (alcohols, fatty acids, steroids) dissolved gasses (oxygen and carbon dioxide)
Term
Chanel Mediated diffusion
Definition
i. Materials pass through transmembrane proteins
ii. Water soluble
iii. Ions
Term
Osmosis
Definition
a. Diffusion of water across a membrane
b. Membrane must be freely permeable to water and selectively permeable to solutes
c. Water moves to the area with more solute
d. Osmotic pressure is the force on the concentration gradient of water equals the forces needed to block osmosis
Term
Tonicity
Definition
a. The osmotic effect of a solute on a cell
Term
Isotonic
Definition
the solution does not cause osmotic flow of water in or out (basically the cell has the same concentration of stuff on the inside and outside)
Term
Hypertonic
Definition
has more solutes on the outside and the cell will lose water
i. Causes the cell to shrivel up and shrink
Term
Hypotonic
Definition
has less solutes on the outside and cell gains water through osmosis
i. This causes the cells to swell and eventually burst called hemolysis
Term
Carrier Mediated Transport
Definition
a. Carries ions and organic molecules by either facilitated diffusion or active transport
b. They are specific, one transport protein has one set of substrates that it wants
c. The rate is determined by the transport protein
d. Regulated by things like hormones
e. Facilitated diffusion
i. Transport large molecules like glucose and amino acids
Term
Active Transport
Definition
i. Move substrates against concentration gradient
ii. Requires ATP
iii. Ion pumps (Na, K, Ca, Mg)
iv. Enchange pump carries two ions at the same time (most common is the sodium potassium pump, moves sodium out and potassium in, 1 ATP moves 3 Na known as secondary active transport)
Term
Cotransport
Definition
2 substances move in the same direction at the same time
Term
Countertransport
Definition
1 substrate moves in while another moves out
Term
Receptor Mediated endocytosis
Definition
a. Receptors (glycoproteins) bind to target molecules (ligands)
b. Coated vesicles (endosome) carriers ligands and receptors to the cell which make the cell go through endocytosis where the cell brings in materials
Term
Exocytosis
Definition
when the cell gets rid of materials from either a specific organelle or from the cell itself usually by way of vesicles
Term
Endocytosis
Definition
it’s the cell bringing in materials
Term
Pinocytosis
Definition
- “cell drinking” occurs when the cells endosoms “drink” the extracellular fluid
Term
Phagocytosis
Definition
“cell eating” occurs when pseudopodia engulf large objects in phagosomes
Term
Interphase
Definition
i. G zero- specialized cell function only
ii. G1- cell growth, organelle duplication and protein synthesis
iii. S- dna replication and histone synthesis
iv. G2- finishes protein synthesis and centriole replication
Term
Three Stages of cell division
Definition
i. DNA replication
ii. Mitosis
iii. Cytokinesis
Term
Mitosis why its important
Definition
a. Important to keep constant number of chromosomes by duplicating the chromosomes and distributing them into two daughter cells
b. Mitosis is important for cellular replacement, tissue repair, development, tumor growth
Term
Interphase
Definition
i. Nondividing state but cell metabolically active, nucleus visible, chromosomes long and thin, centrioles are located along the margin of the nucleus
Term
Prophase
Definition
i. Prepares the cell for division
ii. Chromosomes shorten and thicken
iii. Centriole divides into two entities which migrate down sides of nuclear envelope, spindle fibers start to form
iv. Nuclear envelope has disappeared
Term
Metaphase
Definition
i. Final prep for nuclear division
ii. Chromosomes line up on equatorial plate of division
iii. Centromeres of chromosomes attach to kinetocores (protein) to spindle fibers, microtubles made up of tubulin
Term
Anaphase
Definition
i. Chromosomes migrate to poles
ii. centromeres divide
iii. Chromosomes move by sliding of the microtubles
Term
Telophase
Definition
i. Reverse activites of prophase
ii. Chromosomes reach poles of cell
iii. Spindle fibers degraded
iv. Nuclear membrane reassembled
v. Chromosomes elongate
vi. Nucleoli reassembled
Term
Cytokinesis
Definition
i. Occurs by the constriction of actin fibers forming a belt around the cell (animals)
ii. In plants it’s a bit different they divide by forming a plate from nuclear membrane and then cellulose is added to the plate
Term
Chromosome
Definition
a. A long thin strand of DNA that is connected in an X like fasion with a centromere in the middle
Term
Chromatid
Definition
a. A “leg” of a chromosome
Term
P arm
Definition
Short arm of the chromosome
Term
Q arm
Definition
The long arm of the chromosome
Term
Centromere
Definition
a. A region of the DNA that “connects” the two chromatids
Term
Cytokinesis
Definition
a. The splitting of the two new daughter cells
b. Occurs at the end of mitosis as a final stage
c. Occurs by the constriction of actin fibers forming a belt around the cell
d. In plants it occurs when a plate forms from the nuclear membrane and then cellulose is added to the plate and the two daughter cells finally split
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