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Special Senses, Cardiovascular
Special Senses and the Cardiovascular System of the Body
147
Anatomy
Undergraduate 2
12/19/2007

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Term
How large is the human heart?
Definition
Approximately 5 inches
Term
How much does the heart weigh?
Definition
250-350 grams, less than a pound
Term
Where is the heart located?
Definition
In the mediastinum
Term
What is the fibrous pericardium?
Definition
The superficial, outer covering of the heart
Term
What is the fibrous pericardium composed of (tissue type)?
Definition
Tough connective tissue
Term
What are the functions of the fibrous pericardium?
Definition
To protect the heart, anchoring to surrounding structures including the diaphragm and great vessels, also to prevent overfilling with blood.
Term
What is the serous pericardium?
Definition
The inner, thin, slippery serous membrane, made up of two layers.
Term
What are the two layers of the serous pericardium?
Definition
The parietal layer (outer), and visceral layer (also known as the epicardium) which is tightly attached to the wall of the heart.
Term
What is the pericardial cavity?`
Definition
The space between the two layers of the serous pericardium, contains serous fluid so that the membranes glide easily during heart activity.
Term
What are the three layers of the heart wall?
Definition
The epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium.
Term
What is the epicardium?
Definition
The superficial layer surrounding the heart muscle (epicardium is the visceral layer of the serous pericardium). Often infiltrated with fat.
Term
What is the endocardium?
Definition
Sheets of endothelium that cover the entire inside of the heart changes and insides of vessels.
Term
What type of tissue is endocardium composed of?
Definition
Endothelium; i.e. squamous epithelium.
Term
How are arteries and veins differentiated?
Definition
Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins carry blood towards the heart.
Term
What is another name for the atrioventricular groove?
Definition
The coronary sulcus.
Term
What is the atrioventricular groove?
Definition
Encircles the junction of atria and ventricles.
Term
What is the anterior interventricular sulcus?
Definition
Cradles the anterior interventricular artery, marks anterior position of the septum between the left and right ventricles.
Term
What is the posterior interventricular sulcus?
Definition
Continuation of the anterior interventricular sulcus, a landmark on the posterior surface of the heart.
Term
What type of muscle is found in the atria?
Definition
Pectinate muscle.
Term
What are the function of the heart's auricles?
Definition
Increase volume of the heart.
Term
What is the intraatrial septum?
Definition
A shallow depression in the atria (fossa ovalis).
Term
What is the fossa ovalis?
Definition
Where the foramen ovale was present in the fetal heart.
Term
What is the foramen ovale?
Definition
An opening in the fetal heart that directly connects two atria thus allowing blood to bypass the pulmonary circuit to the fetal lungs.
Term
What three vessels enter the right atria?
Definition
The superior and inferior vena cava, and the coronary sinus.
Term
Where does blood come from that flows from the two vena cava into the right atrium?
Definition
Superior vena cava blood comes from an area superior to the diaphragm, inferior vena cava blood comes from areas below the diaphragm.
Term
What blood comes through the coronary sinus?
Definition
Blood from the myocardium.
Term
What divides the right and left ventricles of the heart?
Definition
The interventricular septum.
Term
Where is the right ventricle located?
Definition
The anterior part of heart.
Term
Where is the left ventricle located?
Definition
The posterior, more inferior portion of heart.
Term
What type of muscle is found in the ventricles?
Definition
Papillary muscle and trabeculae carneae.
Term
What are papillary muscles?
Definition
Muscular bundles that project into the ventricular cavity, connect to the chordae tendonae.
Term
Where does the right ventricle pump into?
Definition
The pulmonary trunk.
Term
Where does blood in the pulmonary trunk travel to, and what is its composition?
Definition
The blood travels to the lungs, it was deoxygenated until this point.
Term
Where does blood from the left ventricle flow?
Definition
Into the aorta to be transported to the rest of the body.
Term
What is the path of the pulmonary circuit?
Definition
Right atrium -> right ventricle -> pulmonary trunk -> pulmonary arteries -> lungs -> pulmonary veins -> left atrium
Term
Where are the general oxygen quantities of veins and arteries opposite?
Definition
In the pulmonary circuit.
Term
What is the general flow of the systemic circuit?
Definition
Left atrium -> left ventricle -> aorta -> vessels throughout body -> superior or inferior vena cava -> right atrium
Term
What is the general path of the coronary circuit?
Definition
Ascending aorta -> left or right coronary artery -> capillaries in myocardium -> cardiac veins -> coronary sinus -> right atrium
Term
What are anastomoses?
Definition
Connections between 2 or more branches of arteries that supply the same region with blood. This provides alternate routes for blood to reach a particular region. There are many of these around the heart.
Term
Where do the right and left coronary arteries arise from?
Definition
The base of the aorta.
Term
Where do the right and left coronary arteries run?
Definition
Along the atrioventricular groove of the heart.
Term
Where does the left coronary artery run and how does it divide?
Definition
Runs toward the left side of the heart and divides into the anterior interventricular artery and the circumflex artery.
Term
What is the anterior interventricular artery?
Definition
Supplies the interventricular septum and anterior side of the ventricles with blood.
Term
Where does the anterior interventricular artery arise from?
Definition
From the left coronary artery, which arises from the base of the aorta.
Term
Where does the right coronary artery run and how does it divide?
Definition
Courses to the right side of the heart and divides into the marginal arter and posterior interventricular artery.
Term
What is the circumflex artery?
Definition
Supplies the left atrium and posterior wall of the left ventricle.
Term
What is the posterior interventricular artery and where does it arise from?
Definition
Supplies the posterior ventricular walls, arises from the right coronary artery.
Term
What is the marginal artery and where does it arise from?
Definition
Supplies blood to the lateral right side of the heart, arises from the right coronary artery.
Term
Cardiac veins join together to form what?
Definition
The coronary sinus, which flows into the right atrium.
Term
What are the branches of the coronary sinus?
Definition
Great, middle, and small cardiac veins.
Term
What is the great cardiac vein?
Definition
Found in anterior interventricular sulcus.
Term
What is the middle cardiac vein?
Definition
Lies in the posterior interventricular sulcus.
Term
What is the small cardiac vein?
Definition
Runs along the heart's right inferior margin.
Term
When the heart is relaxed, what do the atrioventricular valves do?
Definition
Hang limply open into the ventricles.
Term
What is the right AV valve?
Definition
The tricuspid valve, with 3 flexible cusps.
Term
What is the left AV valve?
Definition
The biscuspid valve, also known as the mitral valve.
Term
What are the chordae tendineae?
Definition
"Tendonous cords", aka "heart strings", tiny white collagen cords attached to each of the AV valve cusps. Anchor the cusps to paillary muscle protruding from ventricle walls.
Term
What are the two semilunar valves of the heart and what are their structure?
Definition
The pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves, each has 3 pocket like cusps, resemble a "half moon".
Term
Why is cardiac muscle striated?
Definition
Allows contraction by sliding filament mechanism.
Term
What is the connective tissue between cardiac cells?
Definition
The endomysium, dense with many capillaries to provide blood flow.
Term
What are the functions of desmosomes in cardiac cells?
Definition
Interlock adjacent cardiac cells.
Term
What is the function of gap junctions in cardiac cells?
Definition
Allow ions to pass freely cell to cell to allow depolarization.
Term
The fact that the heart cells can beat in unison is known as what?
Definition
Functional syncytium.
Term
What is the lack of oxygen known as?
Definition
Ischemia.
Term
How are heart cells stimulated?
Definition
The are self-stimulating, initiating their own depolarization.
Term
How long is the absolute refractory period of a cardiac cell?
Definition
250 ms, as opposed to 1-2 ms in skeletal muscle.
Term
Why do cardiac cells have such a long absolute refractory period?
Definition
Prevents tetanic (high frequency) contractions that would stop pumping action.
Term
In the cardiac action potential, influx of Na+ ion causes what?
Definition
Positive feedback, enabling more contractions.
Term
What part of the cardiac cell releases Ca++?
Definition
The sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Term
What does Ca++ provide signaling for?
Definition
Provides signaling for sliding filaments.
Term
When Ca++ channels close, what happens in the cell?
Definition
The K+ channels open, and allow the RMP to be restored.
Term
The coordinated system of the heart is a function of what two things?
Definition
Gap junctions and the intrinsic conduction system.
Term
What is the chief characteristic of autorhythmic cells of the heart?
Definition
They have an unstable resting potential, enabling easy depolarization. In fact they are constantly depolarizing, drifting towards threshold.
Term
How often is the sinoatrial node depolarized?
Definition
Approximately 75 times each minute.
Term
Where is the fastest depolarization rate in the heart?
Definition
The sinoatrial node.
Term
What is another name for the characteristic pace maker rhythm?
Definition
Sinus rhythm.
Term
Where is the atrioventricular valve located?
Definition
The inferior portion of the interatrial septum just above the tricuspid valve.
Term
Why is the AP (impulse) delayed slightly at the AV node?
Definition
In order to allow the atria to finish completely contracting before the ventricles contract.
Term
Where does the impulse in the heart travel to after the atrioventricular node?
Definition
The Bundle of His (AV bundle).
Term
Where does the bundle of His run?
Definition
Through the superior part of the interventricular septum.
Term
What is unique about the Bundle of His?
Definition
It is the only connection between the atria and ventricles.
Term
What are the Purkinje fibers?
Definition
Long strands of barrel shaped cells, complete the pathway through the interventricular septum, penetrate into the heart apex, and turn superiorly into ventricular walls.
Term
What do the Purkinje fibers initiate?
Definition
Directly supplies papillary muscles to start the closure of AV valves.
Term
What is an arrhythmia?
Definition
Uncoordinated AV contractions, fibrillation.
Term
What is a heart block?
Definition
No conduction through the AV node, need an artificial pacemaker to carry impulses to ventricles.
Term
What are the three distinguishing waves of an EKG?
Definition
The P, QRS, and T waves.
Term
What is the P wave of an EKG?
Definition
First wave, small, lasting approximately 0.08 seconds. It is the atrial depolarization wave from the SA node through the atria.
Term
What is the QRS complex wave?
Definition
Average duration of 0.08 seconds, results from ventricular depolarization and precedes ventricular contraction. Shape reveals the different shape of the two ventricles and the time required for each to depolarize.
Term
What is the T wave in an EKG?
Definition
Final wave, lasts about 0.16 seconds. Caused by ventricular repolarization, slower than depolarization.
Term
Why is atrial repolarization not shown in an EKG?
Definition
Because it is obscured by the QRS complex because it takes place during ventricular excitation.
Term
What occurs during the P-Q interval?
Definition
Atria repolarize, beginning of ventricular excitation.
Term
What occurs during the Q-T interval?
Definition
The ventricles finish depolarizing, and begin repolarizing.
Term
What does it mean if there is no P wave?
Definition
Damage to the SA node.
Term
What does it mean if there are more P waves than QRS waves?
Definition
Heart block, ventricles no longer paced by AV node.
Term
What does it mean if there is an enlarged R wave?
Definition
Ventricles are enlarged.
Term
What does it mean if there is a flattened T wave?
Definition
Cardiac ischemia.
Term
What does a prolonged Q-T interval mean?
Definition
A repolarization abnormality, presents a risk of ventricular arrhythmia.
Term
What occurs during mid-late diastole?
Definition
Ventricles fill, blood flows through the AV valve, atrial pressure rises, maximum pressure.
Term
What occurs during ventricular systole?
Definition
Atria relax, AV valves closed, ventricles contract
Term
What occurs during early diastole?
Definition
Isovolumetric relaxation (brief, following T wave), ventricles relax, atria filling, AV valves reopen and blood begins to flow into ventricles
Term
What occurs during the lub sound of the heart?
Definition
The the AV valves snap shut, indicating the onset of ventricular systole.
Term
What occurs during the dub sound of the heart?
Definition
Immediately after the ventricles contract and ventricular diastole begin, the semilunar valves snap shut.
Term
What is CO?
Definition
Cardiac output, defined as the stroke volume times the heart rate.
Term
What is the typical stroke volume?
Definition
70 mL per minute.
Term
What is the typical adult volume?
Definition
5 liters throughout the body
Term
When does the sympathetic nervous system govern the heart?
Definition
During times of flight or fight.
Term
What does the sympathetic nervous system release in times of flight or fright?
Definition
Norepinephrine at the cardiac synapses.
Term
What does the norepinephrine bind to and how does it function?
Definition
Binds to adergenic receptors in the heart, causing the threshold to be reached more quickly and enhances Ca++ entry to stimulate contractile cells.
Term
How does the parasympathetic nervous system govern the heart?
Definition
Activated in times of rest, grief, severe depression, etc.
Term
What does the parasympathetic nervous system release when governing the heart?
Definition
Aceytlcholine.
Term
What does acetylcholine bind to in the heart?
Definition
Muscarinic receptors, results in the hyperpolarization of the cardiac cells by opening K+ channels.
Term
What hormones regulate the heart?
Definition
Epinephrine and thyroxine.
Term
What does epinephrine do to the heart?
Definition
Released by the adrenal gland, enhances heart rate & contractility.
Term
What does thyroxine do to the heart?
Definition
Released by the thyroid gland, increases heart rate, metabolic rate, and body heat.
Term
What does increased Na+ do to the heart action potential?
Definition
Inhibits Ca++ transport, blocks heart contraction.
Term
What does increased K+ do to the heart?
Definition
Disrupts depolarization, may cause heart block and cardiac arrest.
Term
What is the ductus arteriosus?
Definition
An additional lung bipass between the pulmonary trunk and aorta in the fetus, is the ligamentum arteriosum in adults.
Term
What are the most abundant type of papillae?
Definition
Filiform.
Term
Where are the circumvallate papillae located?
Definition
Largest, fewest, back of tongue, taste buds on side.
Term
What are the basal cells of the taste buds?
Definition
Stem cells, give rise to new gustatory cells.
Term
What is the primary characteristic of gustatory receptor cells?
Definition
Microvilli/hairs that contact chemicals in food.
Term
What are the nerves that govern the gustatory pathway?
Definition
The facial nerve (VII), glossopharyngeal (IX), and vagus nerve (X).
Term
What portion of the tongue does the facial nerve govern?
Definition
The anterior 2/3 of the tongue, chorda tympani.
Term
What is the taste pathway?
Definition
Sensory nerve fibers synapse in the solitary nucleus of the medulla, to the thalamus, to the gustatory cortex of the parietal lobe.
Term
What type of cells line the roof of the nasal cavity?
Definition
Pseudostratified epithelium.
Term
Olfactory epithelium cover what areas of the nose?
Definition
The roof of the nasal cavity, the superior nasal concha in the nasal septum of the ethmoid bone.
Term
What type of neurons are olfactory receptors?
Definition
Bipolar neurons (60 day lifespan!).
Term
What is an apical dendrite?
Definition
Part of the olfactory receptor neuron, has olfactory cilia, which extend to increase surface area.
Term
What is the olfactory pathway?
Definition
Receptor, CN 1 (axons of receptors), olfactory bulbs, these synapse with mitral cells in glomeruli and axons specific for neurons with receptors specific for smell type send message, then passes through the olfactory tracts to the olfactory cortex, and into the subcortical structures.
Term
What do mitral cells do?
Definition
Refine, amplify, and relay signal.
Term
What occurs in the olfactory cortex?
Definition
Smells are interpreted and identified.
Term
What is a scientific name for eyelids?
Definition
Palpebrae
Term
What are canthi?
Definition
The medial and lateral angles of the eye
Term
What is the lacrimal caruncle?
Definition
Sebaceous gland
Term
What is the palpebral conjunctiva?
Definition
Lines the eyelids.
Term
What is the bulbar conjunctiva?
Definition
Anterior surface of the eyeball.
Term
Where do the lacrimal glands lie?
Definition
Above the eye, lateral.
Term
How do tears flow out of the eye?
Definition
Through the lacrimal canal, sacs, ducts, out through the inferior nasal meatus into and out of the nose.
Term
What is (LR6SO4)3?
Definition
Lateral rectus controlled by CN VI (abducens), superior oblique controlled by IV (trochlear), and the rest are controlled by III, the occularmotor nerve.
Term
What is the anterior surface of the lens epithelium composed of?
Definition
Cuboidal cells.
Term
What are ciliary muscles?
Definition
Control the lens shape
Term
What are the three layers of the retina?
Definition
The pigmented layer, the neural layer, and the optic disc.
Term
What are the ciliary processes?
Definition
Contain capillaries that secrete fluid anteriorly.
Term
What are the interior chambers of the eye?
Definition
The vitreous humor of the posterior segment filled with glassy clear gel, and the anterior segment filled with aqueous humor.
Term
What does the posterior segment of the eye do?
Definition
Transmits light, supports posterior lens, and contributes to intraocular pressure.
Term
What is the vision pathway?
Definition
The optic nerve, optic chiasm, optic tracks, genigulate of thalamus, optic radiations in white matter, visual center in occipital lobe.
Term
What is the tensor tympani?
Definition
Arises from auditory tube to attach to malleus, a muscle.
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