Shared Flashcard Set

Details

SCCCAP-Test 2
lecture chapters 5, 6, 8
102
Anatomy
Undergraduate 2
10/06/2012

Additional Anatomy Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
Skin - three major regions
Definition
  • Epidermis (superficial region)
  • Dermis (middle region)
  • Hypodermis (superfical fascia - deepest region, subcutaneous layer deep to skin, not technically part of skin, mosty adipose tissue
Term
Epidermis composed of:
Definition
keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
Term
Cells of epidermis
Definition
  • Keratinocytes - produce fibrous protein keratin (protects and waterproofs skin)
  • Melanocytes - produce pigment melanin
  • Epidermal dendritic (Langerhans) cells - macrophages that help activate immune system
  • Tactile (Merkel) cells - touch receptors
Term
Layers of the Epidermis (deep to superficial)
Definition
  • Stratum basale - mitotic layer
  • Stratum spinosum - keratinocytes joined by desmosomes
  • Stratum granulosum - keratinization begins
  • Stratum lucidum - clear layer only in thick skin
  • Stratum corneum - 20-30 layers layers of dead cells, sacs filled with keratin, protects from abrasion
Term
Dermis
Definition
  • Strong, flexible connective tissue
  • Cells include fibroblasts, macrophages, and occasionally mast cells and white blood cells
  • Two layers: papillary, reticular
Term
Layers of the Dermis: Papillary Layer
Definition
  • Areolar connective tissue with collage and elastic fibers and blood vessels
  • Dermal papillae contain:
    -capillary loops
    -Meissner's corpuscles (touch receptors)
    -free nerve endings (pain receptors) 
Term
Layers of the Dermis: Reticular Layer
Definition
  • ~80% of the thickness of dermis
  • Collagen fibers provide strength and resiliency
  • Elastic fibers provide stretch-recoil properties
Term
Skin Markings: Friction Ridges
Definition
Epidermal ridges lie atop deeper dermal papillary ridges to form friction ridges of fingerprints. We leave fingerprints because of sweat pores that open along the crests.
Term
3 Pigments Contribute to Skin Color
Definition
  • Melanin
    -responsible for dark skin colors
    -produced in melanocytes; migrates to keratinocytes where it forms "pigment shields" for nuclei
    -Freckles, pigmented moles: local accumulations of melanin
  • Carotene - yellow to orange, most obvious in the palms and soles
  • Hemoglobin - responsible for the pinkish hue of skin 
Term
Appendages of the Skin 
Definition
  • Sweat glands
  • Oil glands
  • Hairs and hair follicles
  • Nails
  • (appendages of the skin are derivatives of the epidermis)
Term
2 types of sweat (sudoriferous) glands
Definition
  • Eccrine
  • Apocrine
Term
Eccrine Sweat Glands
Definition
  • Abundant on palms, soles, and foreheads
  • Sweat: 99% water, NaCl, vitamin C, antibodies, dermcidin, metabolic wasters
  • Ducts connect to pores
  • Function in thermoregulation
  • Most numerous
Term
Apocrine Sweat Glands
Definition
  • Confined to axillary and anogenital areas
  • Function not well known
  • Sweat + fatty substances and proteins
  • Ducts connect to hair follicles
  • Functional from puberty onward (sexual scent glands?)
Term
Specialized Apocrine Glands
Definition
  • Ceruminous glands - in external ear canal; secrete cerumen (ear wax)
  • Mammary glands - milk
Term
Sebaceous (Oil) Glands
Definition
  • Widely distributed
  • Most develop from hair follicles
  • Become active at puberty
  • Sebum
    -Oily holocrine secretion
    -Bactericidal
    -Softens hair and skin 
Term
Hair - functions
Definition
  • Alerting the body to the presence of insects on the skin
  • Guarding the scalp against physical trauma, heat loss, and sunlight
Term
Hair
Definition
  • Distribution - entire surface except palms, soles, lips, nipples, and portions of external genitalia
  • Consists of dead keratinized cells
  • Hair pigments: melanins (yellow, rust brown, black)
  • Gray/white hair: decreased melanin production, increased air bubbles in shaft
Term
[image]
Definition

1 = Follicle Wall

2 = Cuticle

3 = Cortex

4 = Medulla

Term
Hair Follicle
Definition
  • Extends from the epidermal surface into dermis
  • Two-layered wall: outer connective tissue root sheath, inner epithelial root sheath
  • Hair bulb: expanded deep end
Term
Hair follicle receptor (root hair plexus)
Definition
  • sensory nerve endings around each hair bulb
  • stimulated by bending a hair
Term
Arrector pili
Definition
  • Smooth muscle attached to follicle
  • Responsible for "goose bumps"
Term
Homeostatic Imbalance in Hair
Definition

Alopecia - hair thinning

Hirsutism - excessive hairiness

Term
Functions of the Integumentary System
Definition
  • Chemical protection
  • Physical/mechanical barriers
  • Biological barriers
  • Body temperature regulation
  • Cutaneous sensations
  • Metabolic functions
  • Blood reservoir
  • Excretion
Term
Functions - Chemical Protection
Definition
low pH secretions (acid mantle) and defensins slow bacterial activity
Term
Functions - physical/mechanical barriers
Definition
  • keratin and glycolipids block most water and water-soluble substances
  • limited penetration of skin by lipid-soluble substances
Term
Functions - Biological barriers
Definition
dendritic cells, macrophages, and DNA
Term
Functions - body temperature regulation
Definition
  • ~500 ml/day of routine insensible perspiration (at normal body temperature
  • At elevated temperature, dilation of dermal vessels and increased sweat gland activity (sensible perspirations) cool the body
Term
Functions - cutaneous sensations
Definition
temperature, touch, pain
Term
Functions - metabolic functions
Definition
synthesis of vitamin D precursor when skin is exposed to sun (vitamin D important to calcium metabolism)
Term
Functions - blood reservoir
Definition
up to 5% of body's blood volume (in dermis)
Term
Function - excretion
Definition
nitrogenous wastes and salt in sweat
Term
Skin Cancer
Definition
  • Most skin tumors are benign (do not metastasize)
  • Risk factors - overexposure to UV radiation, frequent irritation of the skin
Term
3 major types of Skin Cancer
Definition
  • Basal cell carcinoma (least malignant, most common - 80% of skin cancers)
  • Squamous cell carcinoma (second most common)
  • Melanoma (most dangerous)
Term
Basal Cell Carcinoma
Definition
  • Stratum basale cells proliferate and slowly invade dermis and hypodermis
  • Cured by surgical excision in 99% of cases
  • Sun exposed areas of skin
  • Looks like shiny dome shaped nodule
  • Slow growing
Term
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Definition
  • Involves keratinocytes of stratum spinosum
  • Most common on scalp, ears, lower lip, and hands
  • Good prognosis if treated by radiation therapy or removed surgical
  • scaly & reddened papule (small, rounded elevation)
  • will grow fast and metastasize if not removed
Term
Melanoma
Definition
  • Only 2 - 3% of all skin cancers
  • involves melanocytes
  • highly metastatic and resistant to chemotherapy
  • treated by wide surgical excision accompanied by immunotherapy
  • can appear wherever there is pigment
  • most appear spontaneously
  • approx. 1/3 derive from existing mole
  • early detection is important
Term
Melanoma - ABCD(E) Rule
Definition

A: Asymmetry; the two sides of the pigmented area do not match

B: Border exhibits indentations

C: Color is black, brown, tan, and sometimes red or blue

D: Diameter is larger than 6 mm (size of a pencil)

E: Elevation

Term
Burns
Definition
  • Can be caused by heat, electricity, radiation, certain chemical
  • Can cause tissue damage, denatured protein, cell death
  • Immediate threat: dehydration and electrolyte imbalance (loss of fluids), leading to renal shutdown and circulatory shock
Term
Rule of Nines
Definition
  • Used to estimate the volume of fluid loss from burns
  • Divides body in 11 areas, each accounting for 9% of total body area
Term
Partial-Thickness Burns - First Degree
Definition
  • Epidermal damage only
  • Localized redness, edema (swelling), and pain
Term
Partial-Thickness Burns - Second Degree
Definition
  • Epidermal and upper dermal damage
  • Blisters appear
Term
Full-Thickness Burns - Third Degree
Definition
  • Entire thickness of skin damaged
  • Gray-white, cherry red, or black
  • No initial edema or pain (nerve endings destroyed)
  • Skin grafting usually necessary
Term
Severity of Burns: Critical if - 
Definition
  • >25% of the body has second-degree burns
  • >10% of the body has third-degree burns
  • Face, hands, or feet bear third-degree burns
Term
Skeletal Cartilages (intro)
Definition
  • Contain no blood vessels or nerves
  • Dense connective tissue girdle of perichondrium contains blood vessles for nutrient delivery to cartilage
Term
3 types of skeletal cartilage
Definition
  • Hyaline cartilages (provide support, flexibility, and resilience - most abundant type)
  • Elastic cartilages (similar to hyaline cartilages, but contain elastic fibers)
  • Fibrocartilages (collagen fibers - have great tensile strength)
Term
Locations of types of cartilages
Definition
  • Hyaline - articular cartilages, costal cartilages, respiratory cartilages, nasal cartilages
  • Elastic - external ear and epiglottis
  • Fibrocartilages - menisci of knee, discs between vertebrae, pubic symphysis
Term
Growth of Cartilage
Definition
  • Appositional - cells secrete matrix against the external face of existing cartilage
  • Interstitial - Chondrocytes divide and secrete new matrix, expanding cartilage from within
  • Calcification of cartilage occurs during normal bone growth, old age
Term
Classification of bones of the skeleton - 2 main groups
Definition
  • Axial - forms the long axis of the body; skull, vertebral column, rib cage
  • Appendicular - bones of upper and lower limbs and the girdles (shoulder and hip bones) that attach the limbs to axial skeleton
Term
Classification of Bones by Shape
Definition
  • Long bones - longer than they are wide (humerus, femur, radius, ulna, tibia, fibula, etc.)
  • Short bones - cube-shaped bones (wrist & ankles), sesamoid bones (within tendons, eg. patella)
  • Flat bones - thin, flat, slightly curved (sternum)
  • Irregular bones - complicated shapes (vertebra)
Term
6 Functions of Bones
Definition
  • Support (for the body and soft organs)
  • Protection (for brain, spinal cord, vital organs)
  • Movement (levers for muscle action)
  • Storage (minerals-calcium & phosphorus-and growth factors)
  • Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis in marrow cavities)
  • Triglyceride (energy - storage in bone cavities)
Term
Bone Textures
Definition
  • Compact bone (dense outer layer)
  • Spongy - trabecular - bone (honeycomb of trabeculae)
Term
Structure of a Long Bone
Definition
  • Diaphysis (shaft)
    -compact bone collar surrounds medullary (marrow) cavity
    -medullary cavity in adults contains fat (yellow marrow) 
  • Epiphyses (ends)
    -expanded ends
    -spongy bone interior
    -epiphyseal line (remnant of growth plate)
    -articular (hyaline) cartilage on joint surfaces 
Term
2 Membranes of Bone
Definition
  • Periosteum
  • Endosteum
Term
Membranes of Bones - Periosteum
Definition
  • Outer fibrous layer
  • Inner osteogenic layer (osteoblasts, osteoclasts, osteogenic cells)
  • Nerve fibers, nutrient blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels enter the bone via nutrient foramina
  • Secured to underlying bone by Sharpey's fibers
Term
Membranes of Bones - Endosteum
Definition
  • Delicate membrane on internal surfaces of bone
  • Also contains osteogenic cells
Term
Structure of Short, Irregular, and Flat Bones
Definition
  • Periosteum-covered compact bone on the outside
  • Endosteum-covered spongy bone within
  • Spongy bone called diploë in flat bones
  • Bone marrow between the trabeculae
  • (looks like sandwich)
Term
Location of Hematopoietic Tissue (Red Marrow)
Definition
  • Red marrow cavities of adults
    -trabecular cavities of the heads of the femur and humerus
    -trabecular cavities of the diploë of flat bones (sternum)
  • Red marrow of newborn infants
    -medullary cavities and all spaces in spongy bone 
Term
Bone Cells
Definition
  • Osteogenic (osteoprogenitor) cells - stem cells in periosteum and endosteum that give rise to osteoblast
  • Osteoblasts - bone-forming cells, matrix-synthesizing cell responsible for bone growth
  • Osteocytes - mature bone cells, maintain the matrix
  • Osteoclasts - cells that break down (resorb) bone matrix
Term
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone - Compact Bone - Osteon
Definition
  • Haversian system, or osteon - structural unit
  • Lamella (pl. lamellae): weight-bearing, column-like matrix tubes, collagen fibers run in different directions
  • Central (Haversian) canal - contains blood vessels and nerves
Term
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone: Compact Bone
Definition
  • Perforating (Volkmann's) canals - at right angles to the central canal, connects blood vessels and nerves of the periosteum and central canal
  • Lacunae - small cavities that contain osteocytes
  • Canaliculi - hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal
Term
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone: Spongy Bone - Trabeculae
Definition
  • Align along lines of stress
  • No osteons
  • Contain irregularly arranged lamellae, osteocytes, and canaliculi
  • Capillaries in endosteum supply nutrients
Term
Chemical Composition of Bone: Organic
Definition
  • Osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts
  • Osteoid - organic bone matrix secreted by osteoblasts
  • Ground substance (proteoglycans, glycoproteins)
  • Collagen fibers (provide tensile strength and flexibility)
Term
Chemical Composition of Bone: Inorganic
Definition
  • Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts)
  • 65% of bone mass
  • Mainly calcium phosphate crystals
  • Responsible for hardness and resistance to compression
Term
Bone Development
Definition
  • Osteogenesis (ossification) - bone tissue formation
  • Stages
    -(bone formation - begins in 2nd month of development)
    -Postnatal bone growth - until early adulthood
    -Bone remodeling and repair - lifelong
Term
Postnatal Bone Growth
Definition
  • Interstitial growth (increases length of long bones, epiphyseal plate)
  • Appositional growth (increases thickness and remodelling of all bones by osteoblasts and osteoclasts on bone surfaces)
Term
Hormonal Regulation of Bone Growth
Definition
  • Growth hormone stimulates epiphyseal plate activity (in infancy & childhood)
  • Thyroid hormone modulates activity of growth hormone
  • Testosterone and estrogen (sex hormones at puberty) promote adolescent growth spurts, end growth by inducing epiphyseal plate closure
  • Too little - dwarfism
  • Too much - gigantism
Term
Bone Remodeling: Deposit
Definition
  • Occurs where bone is injured or added strength is needed
  • Osteocytes deposit new matrix
  • Requires a diet rich in protein; vitamins C, D, and A; calcium; phosphorus; magnesium; and manganese
Term
Bone Remodeling: Resorption
Definition
  • Osteoclasts - move along surface creating grooves by secreting lysosomal enzymes and HCL
  • Convert calcium salts into soluble calcium
  • Dissolved matrix (including soluble calcium) enters interstitial fluid and then blood
Term
What controls continual remodeling of bone?
Definition
  • Hormonal mechanisms that maintain calcium homeostasis in the blood
  • Mechanical and gravitational forces
Term
Calcium is necessary for:
Definition
  • Transmission of nerve impulses
  • Muscle contraction
  • Blood coagulation
  • Secretion by glands and nerve cells
  • Cell division
Term
Hormonal Control of Blood Ca2+
Definition
  • Primarily controlled by parathyroid hormone
  • low levels of blood Ca2+ levels detected
  • parathyroid glands release parathyroid hormone
  • PTH stimulates osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix and release Ca2+
  • Increase in Blood Ca2+levels
  • May be affected to a lesser extent by calcitonin (lowers Blood Ca2+levels)
Term
Response to Mechanical Stress
Definition
Wolff's law: a bone grows or remodels in response to forces or demands placed upon it
Term
Bone Repair: Classification of Bone Fractures
Definition
  • Position of bone ends after fracture:
    - Nondisplaced-ends retain normal position
    - Displaced-ends out of normal alignment
  • Completeness of the break:
    - Complete-broken all the way through
    - Incomplete-not broken all the way through
  • Orientation vs long axis of the bone: 
    - Linear-parallel to long axis of the bone
    - Transverse-perpendicular to long axis of the bone
  • Skin penetration:
    - Compound (open)-bone ends penetrate the skin
    - Simple (closed)-bone ends do not penetrate the skin
Term
4 Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture
Definition
  • Hematoma forms (bone cells deprived of nutrition die, tissue at site becomes swollen, painful, and inflamed)
  • Fibrocartilaginous callus forms (within a few days - capillaries grow into hematoma, phagocytes clean up debris)
  • Bony callus formation (within a week - new bone trabeculae converts fibrocartilaginous callus to spongy bone)
  • Bone remodelling (2 months and longer - bony callus remodelled)
Term
3 Bone Diseases - Homeostatic Imbalances
Definition
  • Osteomalacia & rickets
  • Osteoporosis
  • Paget's Disease
Term
Osteomalacia & rickets
Definition
  • Osteomalacia - adults
  • Rickets - children
  • Calcium salts not deposited
  • Rickets (childhood disease) causes bowed legs and other bone deformities (pelvis, skull, ribcage)
  • Cause: vitamin D deficiency or insufficient dietary calcium
Term
Osteoporosis
Definition
  • loss of bone mass - bone resorption outpaces deposit
  • Spongy bone of spine and neck of femur become most susceptible to fracture
  • Risk factors: post-menopausal women; lack of estrogen, calcium or vitamin D; petite body form; immobility; low levels of TSH; diabetes mellitus
Term
Osteoporosis: Treatment and Prevention
Definition
  • Calcium, vitamin D, and fluoride supplements
  • Increase weight-bearing exercise throughout life
  • Hormone (estrogen) replacement therapy (HRT) slows bone loss
  • Some drugs increase bone mineral density
Term
Paget's Disease
Definition
  • Excessive and haphazard bone formation and breakdown, usually in spine, pelvis, femur or skull
  • Unknown cause (possibly viral)
  • Treatment includes calcitonin and biphosphates
Term
Joints (Articulations) - definition
Definition
site where two or more bones meet
Term
Function of Joints
Definition
  • Give skeleton mobility
  • Hold skeleton together
Term
3 Functional Classification of Joints
Definition

Based on amount of movement allowed by the joint

  • synarthrose = immovable joints
  • amphiarthose = slightly movable joints
  • diathrose = freely moveable joints
Term
3 Structural Classifications of Joints
Definition

Based on material binding bones together and whether or not a joint cavity is present

  • Fibrous
  • Cartilagenous
  • Synovial
Term
Fibrous Joints - 3 Types
Definition
  • Bones joints by fibrous tissue
  • Lack joint cavity
  • Most immovable
  • 3 types: Sutures, Syndemoses, Gomphoses
Term
Fibrous Joints - Sutures
Definition
  • Joint held together with very short, interconnecting fibers, and bone edges interlock
  • Found only in the skull
Term
Fibrous Joints - Syndesmosis
Definition
  • joint held together by a ligament
  • fibrous tissue can vary in length, but is longer in the sutures
  • fibula/tibia, radius/ulna
Term
Fibrous Joints - Gomphoses
Definition
  • "peg in socket" fibrous joint
  • peridontal ligament holds tooth in socket
Term
Cartilagenous Joints - 2 types
Definition
  • Bone joints by cartilage
  • Lack joint cavity
  • Not highly movable
  • Synchondroses
  • Symphyses
Term
Cartilagenous Joints - Synchondroses
Definition
  • Bones united by hyaline cartilage
  • Epiphyseal plate
  • Joint between first rib and sternum
Term
Cartilagenous Joints - Symphyses
Definition
  • Bones united by fibrocartilage
  • Pubic symphysis
  • Intervertebral discs
Term
Synovial Joints (basic info)
Definition
  • All are diartrotic (freely movable)
  • Include all limb joints, most joints of the body
Term
Synovial Joints - 6 Distinguishing Features
Definition
  • Articular cartilage
  • Joint cavity
  • Synovial fluid
  • Articular joint capsule
  • Reinforcing ligaments
  • Rich nerve and blood vessel supply
Term
synovial joints features - articular cartilage
Definition
hyaline cartilage covers the end of the articulating bones
Term
synovial joints features - joint cavity
Definition
small potential space filled with synovial fluid
Term
synovial joints features - synovial fluid
Definition
  • viscous slippery filtrate of plasma + hyaluronic acid (contains phagocytes, hyaluronic acid increases viscosity)
  • lubricates and nourishes articular cartilage
Term
synovial joints features - articular joint capsule
Definition
  • outer fibrous capsule of dense irregular connective tissue
  • inner synovial membrane of loose connective tissue
Term
synovial joints features - reinforcing ligaments
Definition
  • capsular (intrinsic) - part of the fibrous capsule
  • extracapsular - outside the capsule
  • intracapsular - deep to capsule; covered by synovial membrane
Term
synovial joints features - rich nerve and blood vessel supply
Definition
  • nerve fibers detect pain, monitor joint position and stretch
  • capillary beds produce filtrate for synovial fluid
Term
Synovial Joints: 2 Friction-Reducing Structures
Definition
  • Bursae
  • Tendon sheath
Term
Synovial Joints: Friction-Reducing Structures: Bursae
Definition
  • Flattened, fibrous sacs lined with synovial membranes
  • Contain synovial fluid
  • Commonly act as "ball bearings" where ligaments, msucles, skin, tendons, or bones rub together
Term
Synovial Joints: Friction-Reducing Structures: Tendon sheath
Definition
Elongated bursa that wraps completely around a tendon
Term
Stabilizing Factors at Synovial Joints
Definition
  • Shapes of articular surfaces (minor roles)
  • Ligament number and location (limited roles)
  • Muscle tone, which keeps tendons that cross the joint taut - extremely important in reinforcing shoulder and knee joints and arches of the foot
Supporting users have an ad free experience!