• gross or macroscopic (regional, systems, and surface anatomy)
• microscopic (cytology and histology)
• developmental (embryology)

• mastery of anatomical terminology
• observation
• manipulation
• palpation
• ausculation

• study of the function of the body
• subdivisions based on organ systems
• often focuses on cellular and molecular level (body's abilities depend on chemical reactions in individual cells)

• ability to focus at many levels (from systemic to cellular and molecular)
• study of basic physical principles (electrical currents, pressure, movement)
• study of basic chemical principles

anatomy and physiology are inseparable

• function always reflects structure
• what a structure can do depends on its specific form

(MIND CURLERS)

Muscular, Integumentary, Nervous, Digestive, Cardiovascular, Urinary, Respiratory, Lymphatic, Endocrine, Reproductive, Skeletal

• all cells depend on organ systems to meet their survival needs
• organ systems work cooperatively to perform necessary life functions

• appropriate amounts necessary for life - too little or too much harmful
• nutrients
• oxygen
• water
• normal body temperature
• appropriate atmospheric pressure

chemicals for energy and cell building

carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins

Most abundant chemical in the body

Envronment of chemical reactions

Fluid base for secretions and excretions

37°C

affects rate of chemical reactions

• Maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite continuous changes in environment
• A dynamic state of equilibrium
• Maintained by contributions of all organ systems

• Involve continuous monitoring and regulations of many factors (variables)
• Communication necessary for monitoring and regulation
• Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish communication via nerve impulses and hormones

1 - Receptor - monitors the environment and responds to stimuli

2 - Control Center - Determines the set point at which the variable is maintained, receives input from receptor, determines appropriate response

3 - Effector - Receives output from control center, provides the means to respond, response either reduces (negative feedback) or enhances (positive feedback) stimulus

• Most feedback mechanisms in body
• The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus
• eg: regulation of body temperature (a nervous mechanism)
• eg: regulation of blood volume by ADH (an endocrine mechanism)

• Receptors sense decreased blood volume
• Control center in hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release antidiruetic hormone (ADH)
• ADH causes the kidneys (effectors) to return more water to the blood

• The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus
• May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect
• Usually controls infrequent events - enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin - platelet plug formation and blood clotting

• Disturbance of homeostasis
• Increases risk of disease
• Contributes to changes associated with aging
• If negative feedback mechanisms overwhelmed
• Destructive positive feedback mechanisms may take over

• Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward, thumbs point away from body
• Always use directional terms as if body is in anatomical position
• Right and left refer to body being viewed, not those of observer

• Axial - head, neck trunk
• Appendicular - limbs

• divides body vertically into right and left planes
• produces a sagittal section
• midsagittal or median plane - sagittal plane exactly on the midline
• parasagittal - not on midline

• divides body vertically into anterior and posterior parts
• produces a frontal or coronal section

• divides body horizontally into superior and inferior parts
• produces a cross section

Dorsal cavity - protects nervous system

Ventral cavity - houses internal organs (viscera)

cranial cavity - brain

vertebral (spinal) cavity - spinal cord

Thoracic cavity - 2 pleural cavities (lungs), mediastinal cavities, pericardial cavity (heart)

Abdominopelvic cavity - abdominal cavity (stomach, intestines, spleen, liver), pelvic cavity (urinary bladder, reproductive organs, rectum)

• Thin, double-layered membrane separated by serous fluid
• Layers separated by slit-like cavity filled with serous fluid
• Fluid secreted by both layers of membrane
• A major function on serous membranes is to decrease friction

• peritoneum - lines abdominal cavity & organs
• pleura - lines lungs
• pericardium - lines heart

• Nine divisions used primarily by anatomists
• Four quadrants used primarily by medical personnel

exposed to environment

• oral and digestive cavities
• nasal cavities
• orbital cavities
• middle ear cavities

not exposed to environment

• synovial cavities

• tight junction
• desmosome
• gap junction

• separation of oppositely charged particles (ions) across a membrane creates a membran potential (potential energy measured as voltage)
• Resting membrane potential (RMP): voltage measured in resting state in all cells - ranges from -50 to -100 mV in different cells - resulrts from diffusion and active transport of ions

• Epithelial
• Connective
• Muscle
• Nerve

Nervous - Internal communication (brain, spinal cord, nerve)

Muscle - Contracts to cause movement (skeletal, cardiac, smooth)

Epithelial - Forms boundaries between different environments, protects, secretes, absorbs, filters (skin surface, lining of hollow organs)

Connective - Supports, protects, binds other tissues together (bones, tendons, fat)

• Protection
• Absorption
• Secretion
• Filtration
• Excretion
• Sensory Reception

(PAS-FES)

• Covering and lining epithelia (on external and internal surfaces)
• Glandular epithelia (secretory tissue in glands)

• Cells have polarity (apical-upper,free and basal-lower,attached)
• Specialized contacts between cells (tight junctions, desmosomes)
• Supported by a connective tissue (under the basal lamina)
• Avascular but innervated
• High rate of regeneration

Classified by layers and shape

• 1 layer = simple epithelium
• more than 1 layer = stratified epithelium

Type/shape of cell

• squamous (flat)
• cuboidal (box-like)
• columnar (rectangular)

(if stratified, name according to apical layer of cells)

Have names that reflect their location

• Endothelium (the lining of lymphatic vessels, blood vessels, and heart)
• Mesothelium (the epithelium of serous membranes in the ventral body cavity)

• Quite rare in body
• Found in some sweat and mammary glands
• Typically two layers thick

• Limited distribution in body
• Small amounts in pharynx, male urethra and lining some glandular ducts
• Also occurs at transition areas between two other types of epithelia

classified by:

• Site of product release (endocrine or exocrine)
• Relative number of cells forming the gland (unicellular eg. goblet cells or multicellular)

• Ductless glands
• Secrete hormones that travel through lymph or blood to target organs

• More numerous than endocrine glands
• Secrete products into ducts
• Secretions released onto body surfaces (skin) or body cavities
• Examles include mucous, sweat, oil, and salivary glands

• The only important unicellular gland is the goblet cell (cup-like)
• Produce mucin (when dissolved in water - mucus)

According to:

• Duct type
• Structure of their secretory units

• Most abundant and widely distributed tissue type

• Connective tissue proper
• Cartilage
• Bone
• Blood

Loose connective tissue

• Areolar
• Adipose
• Reticular

Dense connective tissue

• Regular
• Irregular
• Elastic

• Hyaline cartilage
• Elastic cartilage
• Fibrocartilage

• Compact bone
• Spongy bone

• Binding and support
• Protection
• Insulation
• Transportation (blood)

• Common origin: Mesenchyme
• Varying degrees of vascularity
• Cells separated by nonliving extracellular matrix (ground substance and fibers)

• Cells

Extracellular matrix:

• Ground substance
• Fibers

• Interstitial fluid, adhesion proteins, proteoglycans
• Holds large amounts of fluids
• Molecular sieve

• Collagen
• Elastic
• Reticular

Collagen (white fibers)

• Strongest and most abundant type
• Provides high tensile strength

• Mitotically active and secretory cells = "blasts"
• Mature cells = "cytes"

• Fibroblasts in connective tissue proper
• Chondroblasts and chondrocytes in cartilage
• Osteoblasts and osteocytes in bone
• Hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow
• Fat cells, white blood cells, mast cells, and macrophages

Mesenchyme

• Gives rise to all other connective tissue
• Gel-like ground substane with fibers and star-shaped mesenchymal cells

Epithelium + Connective Tissue

• Cutaneous (skin)
• Mucous (mucosae)
• Serous (serosae) - parietal, visceral

Connective Tissue Only

• Synovial

• serosae - membranes (mesothelium + areolar tissue) in a closed ventral body cavity
• parietal serosae line the internal body walls
• visceral serosae cover internal organs

pleura - lungs

pericardium - heart

peritoneum - organs of the abdominal cavity

cavities in the matrix

when matrix is firm, as in bone or cartilage, connective tissue cells are found in the lacunae

• epidermis (made of stratified squamous epithelium)
• dermis (made of areolar and dense irregular connective tissue)

• mechanical damage (bumps and cuts)
• chemical damage (acids, alkalis)
• thermal damage (heat)
• bacterial invasion

• protection
• prevents water loss
• regulates heat loss
• excretion (urea, salts, water in sweat)
• vitamin D synthesis
• cutaneous sense organs

• keratinocytes (produce keratin fibrils, keratin=fibrous protein)
• melanocytes (produce melanin, creates pigmentation)
• epidermal dentritic cells (also called Langerhans cells, immunity)
• tactile (Merkel) cells (sensitive touch receptors located at the epidermal-dermal junction)

• Stratum corneum (horny layer)
• Stratum lucidum (clear layer)
• Stratum granulosum (granular layer)
• Stratum spinosum (prickly layer)
• Stratum basale (basal layer)

• horny layer
• 20-30 dead cell layers
• fully keratinized
• constantly rubbing off

• clear layer
• thin translucent band of dead keratinocytes
• found only in thick skin

• granular layer
• contains 2 granules (lamellated granules & keratohyaline granules)
• lamellated granules contain waterproofing glycolipid
• keratohyaline granules help form keratin fibrils

• spiny layer
• cells appear spiky because of desmosomes
• receive adequate nutrients by diffusion

• basal layer
• single row of cells immediately adjacent to the dermis
• constantly undergoing mitosis

• papillary layer
• reticular layer

• composed of areolar connective tissue
• has fingerlike projections on superior surface (dermal paillae)
• has abundant capillary networks
• has pain (free nerve endings) and touch (Meissner's corpuscles) receptors

• composed of dense irregular connective tissue
• contains arteries & veins
• contains sweat and sebaceous glands
• contains pressue receptors (Pacinian corpuscles)

• portion projecting from scalp surface is the hair shaft
• portion enclosed within follicle is the hair root

• found nearly all over the skin except for palms of hands and soles of feet
• produces sebum, acts as a lubricant to keep skin soft and moist and keep hair from becoming brittle

• eccrine (merocrine) glands found in most of body, secrete perspiration, mostly water, salts and urea, to regulate body temperature
• apocrine glands found in axillary and genital areas, secrete milky protein and fat rich substance (also has water, salts, urea)

Liver, Gallbadder

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Spleen

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Ascending Colon of Large Intestine

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Descending Colon of the Large Intestine

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Cecum, Appendix

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Initial Portion of Sigmoid Colon

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stomach

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Small Intestine

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Urinary Bladder

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