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| Published lists of people to be killed, usually political enemies. Their properties were confiscated and auctioned off, and usually their heirs were stripped of their Roman citizenship (Sulla). Used by Sulla and the Second Triumvirate |
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Added 300 more members to the senate making it 600 in total, raised the number of quaestors to 20, reinforced the Cursus Honorum and age restrictions, set a ten-year period between holding offices, curtailed the authority of the tribune, restricted juries to seators only, put further restrictions on governors
Much of Sulla's programs reversed after his death |
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| A senator who won the consulship against the will of Sulla and with the support of Pompey. Unscrupulously enriched himself during the proscriptions and then as governor of Sicily. Lepidus advocated increasingly sweeping measures- the repeal of Sulla's acts, the return of confiscated land to its former owners, the reintroduction of the grain distributions, and finally the restoration of tribunes' powers and a second consulship for himself. This encouraged farmers in Etruria to to attack settlers on their land that had been taken by Sulla. When the senate went to restore order, Lepidus joined the farmers. Planned to march on Rome in 77 but was repulsed by Pompey and others. He exposed the discontent with Sulla's program, as well as the senate's vulnerability in such a crisis |
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| Governor of Nearer Spain in 83 but was proscribed in 81 and forced to flee to Mauretania in Africa. Called back to the Iberian peninsula when the Lusitanians along with anti-Sullan Roman exiles invited him back to lead an uprising. Rapidly defeated the governor of Further Spain and even when Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius was sent to stop him, Sertorius continued conquering Spain. By 77, almost all of Roman Spain, except for the South, was his. He was joined by the survivors of Lepidus's uprising while Metellus was reinforced by Pompey. Pompey forced the senate to send more troops and supplies by threatening to shift his troops into Italy and so by 73, Pompey and Metellus had gained the upper hand. Sertorius's own officers, led by Perperna, turned traitor and assassinated him. Soon after, Sertorius's remaining forces led by Perperna were defeated and the uprising came to an end. |
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| A Thracian gladiator, who along with a Gaul, Crixus, started an uprising in Capua with 74 other slaves. Created a stronghold on Mt. Vesuvius, which soon attracted runaway slaves and free workers on rural estates, culminating in about 70,000 men. At first, Roman forces sent against them were defeated. When Spartacus urged everyone to migrate north so they could disperse back to their homeland, Crixus disagreed and wanted to continue to loot southern Italy. Crixus ended up being wiped out by Roman forces in 72. Spartacus had first turned north but then changed his mind and went back south. Crassus was put in charge of the offensive against Spartacus (mostly due to his wealth). Crassus drove Spartacus through Brutiium to the sea where pirates failed to deliver ships they had promised to Spartacus. Crassus finally made the final victory in Lucania where Spartacus was killed and 6000 of his followers were then crucified along the Via Appia. Pompey would then claim victory for the complete defeat of the slaves when he came cross 5000 escaped slaves in Spain and killed them. |
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Pontus is the coastal region towards the south-east corner of the Black Sea. Originally part of the Persian empire but after being liberated by Alexander the Great, a noble named Mithridates set up a kingdom.
When Mithridates VI came to power, his foal was to raise both his personal standing and that of his kingdom, by bringing the Crimea and the northern shores of the Black Sea under his control. Pressed more aggressively in Paphlagonia and Capadocia. He tried to get Roman recognition of these conquests but the Romans were cool towards him. Was ordered to abandon Capadocia and actually backed down. Gained an advantage by an alliance with the major kingdom of Armenia, when his daughter married its new king, Tigranes 1. Caused the king of Cappadocia to flee and then expelled the young king Nicomedes from Bithynia. However, once again when the Roman forces ordered him to back off, he did withdraw. However when Roman commanders urged the restored rulers of Bithynia and Cappadocia to seek revenge and repayment, Mithridates swept back into Bithynia destroying Nicomedes's forces. |
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| Originally the quaestor in charge of Sulla's fleet sailing against Mithridates. Defeated a Mithridatic admiral and helped bring a temporary peace between Rome and Mithridates. When Rome began the fight again against Mithridates with the bequeath of Bithynia to Rome, Lucullus as consul, was made of governor of Asia and Cilicia jointly. Was given 5 legions, however before he could attack, Mithridates struck first, laying siege to the key city of Cyzius. The city held out and when winter came, Mithridates was forced to retreat. Lucullus began to achieve victories in 73 without any major battle. He began to penetrate deeply into Pontus in 71, forcing Mithridates to flee to Armenia. Lucullus then invaded Armenia and succeeded in taking and razing its capital city to the ground, once again forcing Mithridates to flee.However, in late 68, his exhausted troops began to mutiny against him (many riled up by his brother-in-law, Publius Clodius Pulcher). This gave Mithridates time to sneak back to Pontus where he wiped out the main troops stationed near Zela. Dissatisfaction against him was fueled by the publicani and he was replced in 67 by Pompey, after most of his success had been reversed. |
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| Noble who ran for consul in 63 with Lucius Sergius Catilina (Catiline) against Cicero. Had served under Sulla and escaped conviction for major offenses. He seriously overspent in the competition for political office. Cicero, however, would gain the consulship a and Hybrida would fill the other consulship. Cicero feared clashing with him would cause nothing to pass so he bought Hybrida's silence by offering to exchange provinces that they had each drawn in the lot, giving Hybrida now Macedonia. |
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| An elderly senator in the time of Cicero's consulship who was being prosecuted for being one of the senators who battered the tribune Saturninus and others to death in the senate house by tiles flung from the roof. Rabirius was not the real point of the attack, as it was more a trial against the senate's ultimate decree (SCU) and of any circumstance in which citizens were put to death without trial. Rabirius was defended by Cicero. The offense was led by a young Julius Caesar. It was conducted according to out-dated procedures and never really came to a conclusion but its point had been made. |
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| Lucius Sergius Catilina (Catiline) |
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| A noble who had served under Sulla and ran for consul in 63 and in 62, where he lost both times. This was a blow as he had risked bankruptcy in order to distribute lavish bribes to win office. He roused widespread alarm by championing the cause of those who were poor, in debt, or dispossessed, and calling for a cancellation of debts and redistribution of land. In despair at proceeding by legal means, Catiline and his assocites now began to gather forces for an armed revolution and other outrages such as arson and murder. Cicero was the only real senator who was distrusted Catiline so completely so Cicero in acting against Catiline had to proceed with care and gather enough condemnatory evidence against him. Finally in November when Catiline was forced to flee Rome, Cicero got the Senate to declare war on him. Catiline then began to gather forces in Etruria and in December Cicero got the evidence he needed when a Gallic people, the Allobroges, told Cicero that they had been invited by Catiline and his associates to join them in burning Rome in the month. This evidence swung public opinion behind Cicero and he was able to arrest five of Catiline's associates, including one current praetor and several senators. Those five were soon executed by Cicero. Early in 62, Catiline and his forces in northern Etruria were trapped between two armies dispatched by the senate and defeated. |
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| A Roman tribune who in 66 proposed that all the forces in Asia Minor and the entire conduct of the Third Mithridatic War be handed to Pompey. Though this was easily passed, later while Pompey was in Asia, Julius Caesar prosecuted him for favouring Pompey. |
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| Cicero recognized that the Roman Republic was in a state of crisis. He believed the Senate had to be made the supreme power. He looked to the ancient nobility for prestige but also saw the need for talented new men (like himself). He wanted a "Harmony of Orders" between the senate and the equestrians and he believed that everyone must be content with their position in the social hierarchy. He also wanted an united identity between Romans and Italians. The Ideal State was an executive power to the magistrates, authority to the senate, and liberty to the people. It could not be a monarchy because there was no checks and balances and it also could not be a democracy because that would be too much power to the people. |
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| Battle in Greece between Pompey and Caesar where Caesar was outflanked by Pompey's greater number of troops. However, Pompey pulled back for some reason giving Caesar the chance to retreat to Pharsalus. At Pharsalus, Caesar was able to restock his grain supply after Bibullus had captured Caesar's ships that were bringing supplies to Caesar's troops in Greece. |
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| The young Egyptian king, son of Ptolemy XII, an ally of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, and brother/husband to Cleopatra. Began a civil war against her sister who also wanted to control the throne. To try to gain support of Caesar, when Pompey arrived in Egypt looking for aid, Pompey XIII had him killed. Instead, Caesar was appalled and gave Pompey's head a proper burial. He then joined on the side of Cleopatra. After a year, he was forced off the throne and while fleeing, he reportedly drowned in the Nile. |
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| Made a series of reforms covering a whole spectrum of problems in Rome. Foremost, Caesar wanted to make the empire a centralized state to address the problem of Rome being set up to govern only one city and not a whole empire. He reduced the dominance of Rome. He removed separate civilian governments and control of the armies. He increased the size of the senate from 600 to 900 (unpopular with existing senators), as well all new members were partisans of Caesar and not all from Rome or even Italy. Also made social and economic reforms. He had to provide employment in the city so he adopted the colonization plan with modifications from the time Cicero was consul. He also sponsored public works, which also served to make Rome a showcase to create a sense of pride and unity. He founded at least 20 colonies to deal with the congested city and 100,000 people from Rome are relocated. This also spread Roman culture. He minted more coins from his spoils of war, which also had his face on them, making him the first man to have his likeness printed on a coin while he was still alive. As coin shortage was still a problem in Rome, he passed a law to prevent the hording of money. No one could hold more than 60,000 sesterces in coin and anyone who had that much had to spend it in some way to put the coin into circulation. He updated the calendar, adding ten more days and an extra day every four years. |
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| The youngest son of Pompey Magnus. Accompanied his father to Egypt where he saw him executed and then joined the resistance against Caesar in Africa. After the defeat at Thapsus, Sextus and his older brother, Gnaeus, went to Hispania where they were again defeated by Caesar and his brother was then executed. Sextus escaped to Sicily where he began to develop his forces, specifically a navy. Sextus soon had control over the Mediterranean. However because of the looming Parthian campaign, in 39, Sextus and the triumvirs signed the Pact of Misenum to bring a temporary peace between the forces. Octavian even marries his aunt, Scribonia. This peace however was fairly short and after several losses against Sextus, Octavian, mainly due to Agrippa, finally defeated him in 36. Sextus escaped to Asia Minor but was captured at Miletus in 35 and executed without trial |
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| In 62, a man in drag was discovered at the festival of the "Good Goddess" in Caesar's house (the name men called the goddess, Fauna, as they were not allowed to even speak her name), a festival men were expressly barred from. The man escaped but popular suspicion marked his Publius Clodius Pulcher, who apparently was there to have an affair with Caesar's wife, Pompeia. Caesar took no action against Clodius himself as he did not want to make an enemy but he did divorce Pompeia though he declared her innocent, because Caesar's wife had to be above suspicion. The senate however prosecuted him and Cicero took the witness stand to destroy Clodius's alibi, creating himself a powerful enemy. Crassus gave massive bribes to the jury and Clodius was therefore acquitted |
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| Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus |
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| The son-in-law of Cato the Younger who was the consul along with Caesar in 59. When a Caesar put forth a land redistribution bill, Bibulus made it especially difficult for him to get it passed so Caesar decided to bring the bill to the Tribal Assembly for a vote. The day Caesar fixed, Bibulus declared a bad omen so that public business would be suspended but Caesar went forward with the voting anyways. A tribune who tried to veto the proceedings was thrown from the platform and a riot erupted. A pot of feces was dropped on Bibulus's head and Cato was expelled by force when he tried to make a speech. After this, Bibulus retired from public life, and declared that he was watching the sky for omens. Therefore, after that people joked the two consuls were Julius and Caesar. He later allied with Pompey against Caesar and died in 48 |
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| A tribune from an aristocratic family who had been a friend of Clodius and had subsequently married his widow, Fulvia. He was a distinguished orator and also a friend of Caesar, who paid off his debts. He made it his principal concern after the death of Clodius to represent Caesar's interests. He acted on Caesar's behalf by the time that the governorship of the Gallic provinces eventually appeared on the senate's agenda again. He became praetor in 49 and while fighting under Caesar, he was sent to stop king Juba I of Numidia where he ultimately was killed fighting. |
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| A decisive battle against Pompey by Caesar in Central Greece. It was a major confrontation that Pompey had seldom risked throughout his career. Despite having a larger army, Pompey was defeated and fled to Egypt where he was killed |
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| The co-ruler of Egypt with her younger brother, she soon began to dispute power and started a civil war against her brother. After he was defeated by Caesar, she began a love affair with Caesar, even having his only son, Caesarion. After Caesar's death, she began a similar relationship with Antony, bearing him three children. They allied together against Octavian. She supplied him with ships at the Battle of Actium, where they were defeated. Soon after, both Cleopatra and Antony committed suicide |
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| A leading instigator of the plot to kill Julius Caesar and brother-in-law to Marcus Junius Brutus. He initially sided with Pompey in the civil war between Pompey and Caesar but after Pharsalus, he was made to surrender unconditionally. In 44, he became praetor with the promise of getting Syria as his province. After the assassination of Caesar, he escaped with Brutus to the east where they began to amass an army to confront the forces of the Second Triumvirate. At the first Battle of Philippi, he committed suicide after losing to Antony, thinking Brutus too had lost (even though he hadn't). |
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| Caesar's aristocratic former co-consul and one of the members of the Second Triumvirate. He was the son of Aemilius Lepidus, who led an uprising against the Republic and was killed. After Caesar's murder, Lepidus allied himself with Marc Antony in a joint bid for power. When he met with Antony and Caesar's heir, Octavius, at Mutina, they ended up making the second triumvirate, a ratified alliance, unlike the first one. Initially he was given the provinces of Transalpine Gaul and Spain but when he stayed in Rome while Antony and Octavius met and defeated Brutus and Cassius at Philippi in 42, he lost most of his land and power. Rumours of him talking with Sextus Pompey also began to emerge and he was forced into exile in Africa. He did however keep his title of Pontifex Maximus, an office Octavius desperately wanted and had to wait for until Lepidus died of a very old age. |
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| A childhood friend of Octavius from an undistinguished family who would remain a close, loyal associate to Octavius throughout his life. Octavian owed his victory against Antony and Cleopatra at Actium to Agrippa, who was a great general where Octavius was not |
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| Composed of Lepidus, Marc Antony, and Octavius, it made these three men essentially dictators in all but name. They gained authority to make laws without reference to senate or people, to exercise jurisdiction without appeal, and to nominate all magistrtes. In practice, however, some formal consultation of senate or people did continue and some elections were held. The Triumvir's priority, however, would be to pursue and punish Caesar's assassins, and for this purpose, Antony and Octavian were to have twenty legions each. They were forced to resort to proscriptions in order to pay their troops and also offered the chance to remove political enemies. |
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| An aristocratic woman married to three of most promising men of the Roman Republic, Publius Clodius Pulcher, Gaius Scribonius Curio, and Marc Antony. Through these men, she gained access to power. She is remembered for her political ambition and activity. After Cicero was killed and his hands and tongue were placed on display on the orator's podium, it is said she stuck pins into his tongue, for what he did to her first husband. When Octavius returned to Rome in 41 after the Battle of Philippi, he divorced her daughter and accused her of being power hungry. So Fulvia, along with Antony's brother Lucius Antonius began to wage war against Octavius. She raised 8 legions in Italy to fight for Antony's rights against Octavius's. Soon, however, she and Lucius were forced to retreat to Perusia, which Octavian then besieged and eventually captured in the spring of 40. Octavian let them go but they soon died afterwards, as she died of an unknown illness in Greece. |
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| The elder sister of Octavian and fourth wife of Marc Antony, she was respected and admired by her contemporaries for her loyalty, nobility, and humanity, and for maintaining traditional Roman feminine virtues. Her marriage to Antony was a political one to forge an alliance between her brother and Antony, however Octavia seems to have been a faithful and loyal wife, raising his children by Fulvia along with her own. The alliance would get uneasy when Antony abandoned her to continue his affair with Cleopatra. Antony divorced her in 32, after she had supplied him and even when he died, she took over the responsibility of raising all his children, including those he had with Cleopatra. |
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