Shared Flashcard Set

Details

Reproductive System
Reproductive System
71
Anatomy
Undergraduate 1
04/21/2015

Additional Anatomy Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
What are the functions of the reproductive system?
Definition
  1. Production of gametes. Specialized organs of the reproductive system produce gametes: sperm cells in males and oocytes (eggs) in females.

  2. Fertilization. The reproductive system enables fertilization of the oocyte by the sperm.

  3. Development and nourishment of a new individual. The female reproductive system nurtures a new individual in the uterus until birth and provides nourishment (milk) after birth.

  4. Production of reproductive hormones. Hormones produced by the reproductive system control its development and the development of the gender-specific body form.

Term
What functions occur both in males and females? What functions occur only in females?
Definition
production of gametes and production of reproductive hormones occurs in boths males and females. fertilization and development/nourishment of a new individual occurs only in females.
Term
What are the structures involved in the male reproductive system?
Definition
The male reproductive system consists of the testes, a series of ducts, accessory glands, and supporting structures. The ducts include the epididymides , the ducta deferentia, and the urethra. Accessory glands include the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, and the bulbourethral glands. Supporting structures include the scrotum and the penis.
Term
What is the structure of the scrotum like?
Definition
The scrotum is a saclike structure that contains the testes. It is divided into two internal compartments by an incomplete connective tissue septum. Externally, the scrotum is marked in the midline by an irregular ridge, the raphe, which continues posteriorly to the anus and anteriorly onto the inferior surface of the penis. The outer layer of the scrotum includes the skin, a layer of superficial fascia consisting of loose connective tissue, and a layer of smooth muscle called the dartos muscle.
Term
How do the dartos and cremaster muscles help in regulating the temperature of the testes?
Definition
In cold temperatures, the dartos muscle contracts, causing the skin of the scrotum to become firm and wrinkled and reducing its overall size. At the same time, the cremaster muscles, which are extensions of abdominal muscles into the scrotum, contract and help pull the testes nearer the body, which helps keep the testes warm. When temperature increases due to a warmer environment or as a result of exercise or fever, the dartos and cremaster muscles relax, and the skin of the scrotum becomes loose and thin, allowing the testes to descend away from the body and keep cool. 
Term
What is the perinuem?What are its boundaries? What are the two triangles within it?
Definition
The perineum is the area between the thighs that is bounded by the symphysis pubis anteriorly, the coccyx posteriorly, and the ischial tuberosities laterally. The perineum is divided into two triangles by a set of muscles, the superficial transverse and deep transverse perineal muscles. These muscles run transversely between the two ischial tuberosities. The urogenital triangle, or anterior triangle, contains the base of the penis and the scrotum. The smaller anal triangle, or posterior triangle, contains the anal opening .
Term
What are the testes? Describe the covering and connective tissue of them.
Definition

The testes are small, ovoid organs, each about 4–5 cm long, within the scrotum. They function as both exocrine and endocrine glands. Their major exocrine secretion is sperm cells, and their major endocrine secretion is the hormone testosterone. The outer part of each testis is a thick, white capsule consisting mostly of fibrous connective tissue called the tunica albuginea. Extensions of the tunica albuginea enter the testis and form incomplete septa

 
 
 
Term
Where are the seminiferous tubules and interstitial cells located? What are their function?
Definition
They are found within the testes. The septa divide each testis into about 300–400 cone-shaped lobules. The lobules contain seminiferous tubules, in which sperm cells develop. Loose connective tissue surrounding the seminiferous tubules contains clusters of endocrine cells called interstitial cells, or Leydig cells which secrete testosterone.
Term
What are the ducts that move sperm from the seminiferous tubules out of the testes?
Definition

 

The combined length of the seminiferous tubules in both testes is nearly half a mile. The seminiferous tubules empty into a set of short, straight tubules, the tubuli recti, which in turn empty into a tubular network called the rete testis. The rete testis empties into 15–20 tubules called efferent ductules that pierce the tunica albuginea to exit the testis. The efferent ductules have a ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium, which helps move sperm cells out of the testis.

Term
When and how do the testes descend into the scrotum?
Definition
Each testis is connected to a labioscrotal swelling, which becomes the scrotum, by a gubernaculum, a fibromuscular cord step 1). The testes descend toward the area where the inguinal canals will form step 2). The gubernaculum extends through the inguinal canal, enlarging the canal. Between 7 and 9 months of development, the testes move through the inguinal canals into the scrotum step 3). As it moves into the scrotum, each testis is preceded by an outpocketing of the peritoneum called the process vaginalis. The superior part of each process vaginalis usually degenerates, and the inferior part remains as a small, closed sac called the tunica vaginalis step 4). The tunica vaginalis is a serous membrane consisting of a layer of simple squamous epithelium resting on a basement membrane. The tunica vaginalis surrounds most of the testis in much the same way that the pericardium surrounds the heart, and the small amount of fluid it secretes allows the testes to move with little friction.
Term
What is spermatogensis? What is the role of germ cells, sustentacular cells, and blood-testis barrier in the structure of the seminiferous tubules?
Definition
Sperm cell development, or spermatogenesis, occurs in the seminiferous tubules. The seminiferous tubules contain two types of cells, germ cells and sustentacular cells,The germ cells are the ones that divide and differentiate to form sperm cells during spermatogenesis. The sustentacular cells are large cells that extend from the periphery to the lumen of the seminiferous tubule. They nourish the germ cells and probably produce, together with the interstitial cells, a number of hormones, such as androgens, estrogens, and inhibins. In addition, tight junctions between the sustentacular cells form a blood-testis barrier between germ cells and sperm cells. The blood-testis barrier isolates the sperm cells from the immune system
Term
Describe the conversion of testosterone to other hormone in the sustentacular cells.
Definition
Testosterone, produced by the interstitial cells, passes into the sustentacular cells and binds to receptors, enabling the sustentacular cells to function normally. In addition, testosterone is converted to two other steroids in the sustentacular cells: dihydrotestosterone and estradiol, a specific type of estrogen. The sustentacular cells also secrete a protein called androgen-binding protein into the seminiferous tubules. Testos-terone and dihydrotestosterone bind to androgen-binding protein and are carried along with other secretions of the seminiferous tubules to the epididymis. Estradiol and dihydrotestosterone may be the active hormones that promote sperm cell formation.
Term
What is the role of meosis in sperm cell development?
Definition

 primary spermatocytes divide by meiosis. Spermatogenesis begins when the primary spermatocytes divide. Each primary spermatocyte passes through the first meiotic division to become two secondary spermatocytes. Each secondary spermatocyte undergoes a second meiotic division to produce two even smaller cells called spermatids. Each spermatid contains one of each of the homologous pairs of chromosomes. Therefore, each sperm cell contains 22 autosomes and either an X or a Y chromosome. Each spermatid undergoes the last phase of spermatogenesis, called spermiogenesis, to form a mature sperm cell.

Term
How do the sperm cells travel through the ducts?
Definition
After being released into the seminiferous tubules, the sperm cells pass through the tubuli recti to the rete testis. From the rete testis, they pass through the efferent ductules, which leave the testis and enter the epididymis. The sperm cells then leave the epididymis, passing through the ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, and urethra to the exterior of the body.
Term
What is the structure and function of the epididymis?
Definition
The efferent ductules from each testis become extremely convoluted and form a comma-shaped structure on the posterior side of the testis called the epididymis. Each epididymis consists of a head, a body, and a long tail. The head contains the convoluted efferent ductules, which empty into a single convoluted tube, the duct of the epididymis, located primarily within the body of the epididymis. This duct alone, if unraveled, would extend for several meters. The duct of the epididymis has a pseudostratified columnar epithelium with elongated microvilli called stereocilia. The stereocilia increase the surface area of epithelial cells that absorb fluid from the lumen of the duct of the epididymis. The duct of the epididymis ends at the tail of the epididymis, which is located at the inferior border of the testis.
Term
How do sperm move from the epididymis and what changes occur in sperm cells while in the epididymis?
Definition
The final maturation of the sperm cells occurs within the epididymis. It takes 12–16 days for sperm to travel through the epididymis and appear in the ejaculate. Changes that occur in sperm cells as they pass through the epididymis include a further reduction in cytoplasm, maturation of the acrosome, and the ability to bind to the zona pellucida of the secondary oocyte. Sperm cells taken from the head of the epididymis are unable to fertilize secondary oocytes, and they are not yet able to become motile; however, sperm cells taken from the tail of the epididymis are able to perform both functions.
Term
What is the structure and function of the ductus deferens?
Definition
The ductus deferens, emerges from the tail of the epididymis and ascends along the posterior side of the testis medial to the epididymis, where it associates with the blood vessels and nerves that supply the testis to form the spermatic cordThe ductus deferens and the rest of the spermatic cord structures ascend and pass through the inguinal canal to enter the pelvic cavity.The end of the ductus deferens enlarges to form an ampulla. The lumen of the ductus deferens is lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium, which is surrounded by smooth muscle. Peristaltic contractions of this smooth muscle tissue help propel sperm cells through the ductus deferens.
Term
What are the components and coverings of the spermatic cord?
Definition
 The spermatic cord consists of (1) the ductus deferens, (2) the testicular artery and venous plexus, (3) lymphatic vessels, (4) nerves, and (5) fibrous remnants of the process vaginalis. The coverings of the spermatic cord include the external spermatic fascia; the cremaster muscle, an extension of the muscle fibers of the internal abdominal oblique muscle of the abdomen; and the internal spermatic fascia.
Term
What is the route by which the ductus deferens extends from the testis to the prostate gland?
Definition
The ductus deferens and the rest of the spermatic cord structures ascend and pass through the inguinal canal to enter the pelvic cavity. The ductus deferens crosses the lateral and posterior walls of the pelvic cavity, travels over the ureter, and loops over the posterior surface of the urinary bladder to approach the prostate gland. 
Term
What is the ejaculatory duct?
Definition
 Adjacent to the ampulla of each ductus deferens is a sac-shaped gland called the seminal vesicle. A short duct from the seminal vesicle joins the ampulla of the ductus deferens to form the ejaculatory ductThese ducts project into the prostate gland and end by opening into the urethra.
Term
What are the three parts of the male urethra?
Definition
The urethra is divided into three parts: the prostatic part, the membranous part, and the spongy part. The prostatic urethra is connected to the bladder and passes through the prostate gland. Fifteen to 30 small ducts from the prostate gland and the two ejaculatory ducts empty into the prostatic urethra. The membranous urethra is the shortest part of the urethra, extending from the prostate gland through the perineum. The spongy urethra, also called the penile urethra, is the longest part of the urethra; it extends from the membranous urethra through the length of the penis. In rare cases, the penis does not develop normally, and the urethra may open to the exterior along the inferior surface of the penis
Term
What is the erectile tissue of the penis like?
Definition
The penis is the male organ of copulation, through which sperm cells are transferred from the male to the female. The penis contains three columns of erectile tissue. Engorgement of this erectile tissue with blood causes the penis to enlarge and become firm, a process called erection. Two of the erectile columns form the dorsum and sides of the penis and are called the corpora cavernosa. The third column, the corpus spongiosum, forms the ventral portion of the penis. It expands to form a cap, the glans penis, over the distal end of the penis. 
Term
What are the structures and locations of the glans penis, crus, bulb, and prepuce?
Definition

At the base of the penis, the corpus spongiosum expands to form thebulb of the penis, and each corpus cavernosum expands to form the crus of the penis. Together, these structures constitute the root of the penis, and the crura attach the penis to the pelvic bones. Skin is loosely attached to the connective tissue that surrounds the erectile columns in the shaft of the penis. The skin is firmly attached at the base of the glans penis, and a thinner layer of skin tightly covers the glans penis. The skin of the penis, especially the glans penis, is well supplied with sensory receptors. A loose fold of skin called the prepuce, or foreskin, covers the glans penis.

Term
Where do the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands empty into the male reproductive duct system?
Definition

The seminal vesicles are sac-shaped glands located next to the ampullae of the ducta deferentia. Each gland is about 5 cm long and tapers into a short excretory duct that joins the ampulla of the ductus deferens to form the ejaculatory duct. The prostate gland, consisting of both glandular and muscular tissue. The prostate gland is composed of a fibrous connective tissue capsule containing distinct smooth muscle cells and numerous fibrous partitions, also containing smooth muscle, that radiate inward toward the urethra. Fifteen to 30 small prostatic ducts carry these secretions into the prostatic urethra. The bulbourethral glands, are a pair of small glands located near the membranous part of the urethra. Each bulbourethral gland is a compound mucous gland. The small ducts of each gland unite to form a single duct, which then enters the spongy urethra at the base of the penis.

Term
What is emission and ejaculation ?
Definition
 Emission is the discharge of all these secretions from the ducta deferentia into the urethra. Ejaculation is the forceful expulsion of semen from the urethra caused by contraction of the urethra, the skeletal muscles in the pelvic floor, and the muscles at the base of the penis.
Term
How do the accessory glands help with the contribution to semen?
Definition
The bulbourethral glands and urethral mucous glands produce a mucous secretion just before ejaculation. This mucus lubricates the urethra, neutralizes the contents of the normally acidic spongy urethra, provides a small amount of lubrication during intercourse, and helps reduce vaginal acidity. Testicular secretions include sperm cells, a small amount of fluid, and some metabolic by-products. The thick, mucuslike secretions of the seminal vesicles contain large amounts of fructose, citric acid, and other nutrients that nourish the sperm cells. The seminal vesicle secretions also contain fibrinogen, which is involved in a weak coagulation reaction of the semen immediately after ejaculation. The thin, milky secretions of the prostate have a basic pH. In combination with secretions of the seminal vesicles, bulbourethral glands, and urethral mucous glands, the prostatic secretions help neutralize the acidic urethra. 
Term
Where are GnRH, LH, FSH and inhibin produced? What effects do they have on the male reproductive system?
Definition
Hormonal mechanisms that influence the male reproductive system involve the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the testes. A small peptide hormone called gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is released from neurons in the hypothalamus. In response to GnRH, cells within the anterior pituitary gland secrete two hormones, referred to as gonadotropins because they influence the function of the gonadsThe two gonadotropins are luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). LH binds to the interstitial cells in the testes and causes them to increase their rate of testosterone synthesis and secretion. FSH binds primarily to sustentacular cells in the seminiferous tubules and promotes sperm cell development. The sustentacular cells of the testes secrete a polypeptide hormone called inhibin, which inhibits FSH secretion from the anterior pituitary.
Term
Where is testosterone produced?
Definition

Testosterone is the major male hormone secreted by the testes. It is classified as an androgen because it stimulates the development of male reproductive structures and male secondary sex characteristics. The testes secrete other androgens, but they are produced in smaller concentrations and are less potent than testosterone. In addition, the testes secrete small amounts of estrogen and progesterone. Testosterone has a major influence on many tissues. It plays an essential role in the embryonic development of reproductive structures, their further development during puberty, the development of secondary sex characteristics during puberty, the maintenance of sperm cell production, and the regulation of gonadotropin secretion. It also influences behavior.

Term
How is the secretion of testosterone regulated?
Definition
Before birth, a gonadotropin-like hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), secreted by the placenta, stimulates the synthesis and secretion of testosterone by the fetal testes. Before puberty, small amounts of testosterone and other androgens in males inhibit GnRH release from the hypothalamus. At puberty, the hypothalamus becomes much less sensitive to the inhibitory effect of androgens, and the rate of GnRH secretion increases, leading to increased LH and FSH release. Elevated FSH levels promote sperm cell formation, and elevated LH levels cause the interstitial cells to secrete larger amounts of testosterone.
Term
What are the effects of testosterone on the male human body?
Definition
Testosterone causes the enlargement and differentiation of the male genitals and reproductive duct system and is necessary for sperm cell formation. Testosterone also stimulates hair growth in the pubic area and extending up the linea alba, as well as on the legs, chest, axillary region, face, and back. Testosterone causes the texture of the skin to become rougher or coarser. The quantity of melanin in the skin also increases, making the skin darker. In addition, testosterone increases the rate of secretion from the sebaceous glands, especially on the face. Testosterone also causes hypertrophy of the larynx and reduced tension on the vocal folds, beginning near puberty. Testosterone stimulates metabolism so that males have a slightly higher metabolic rate than females.  Testosterone promotes protein synthesis in most tissues; as a result, skeletal muscle mass increases at puberty. Testosterone causes rapid bone growth and increases the deposition of Ca2+ in bone, resulting in increased height. 
Term
What effects do psychic, tactile, parasympathetic, and sympathetic stimulation have on the male sex act?
Definition
Testosterone is required to initiate and maintain male sexual behavior. Testosterone enters cells within the hypothalamus and the surrounding areas of the brain and influences their function, resulting in sexual behavior. Male sexual reflexes are initiated by a variety of sensory stimuli. Action potentials are conducted by sensory neurons from the genitals through the pudendal nerve to the sacral region of the spinal cord, where reflexes that result in the male sex act are integrated. Action potentials travel from the spinal cord to the cerebrum to produce conscious sexual sensations. Rhythmic massage of the penis, especially the glans penis, produces extremely important sensory action potentials that initiate erection and ejaculation. In addition, sensory action potentials produced in surrounding tissues, such as the scrotum and the anal, perineal, and pubic regions, reinforce sexual sensations. Psychic stimuli, including sight, sound, odor, and thoughts, have a major effect on sexual reflexes. 
Term
What are the processes of erection, emission, ejaculation, orgasum, and resolution?
Definition

When erection occurs, the penis becomes enlarged and rigid. Erection is the first major component of the male sex act. Emission is the accumulation of sperm cells and secretions of the prostate gland and seminal vesicles in the urethra. Sympathetic centers in the spinal cord (T12–L1), which are stimulated as the level of sexual tension increases, control emission. Sympathetic action potentials cause peristaltic contractions of the reproductive ducts and stimulate the seminal vesicles and the prostate gland to release their secretions resulting in ejaculationSensations that are normally interpreted as pleasurable occur during the male sex act and result in a climactic sensation, called orgasm, associated with ejaculation. After ejaculation, a phase called resolution occurs, which is characterized by a flaccid penis, an overall feeling of satisfaction, and the inability to achieve erection and a second ejaculation for a period that can range from many minutes to many hours or longer.

Term
What are the organs of the female reproductive system?
Definition
The female reproductive organs are the ovaries, the uterine tubes, the uterus, the vagina, the external genital organs, and the mammary glands. The internal reproductive organs are within the pelvis between the urinary bladder and the rectum.
Term
What are the ligaments that hold the ovaries in place?
Definition
 A group of ligaments holds the internal reproductive organs in place. The most conspicuous is the broad ligament, an extension of the peritoneum that spreads out on both sides of the uterus and attaches to the ovaries and uterine tubes.
Term
What are the ovaries? What is their structure like?
Definition
The two ovaries are small organs about 2–3.5 cm long and 1–1.5 cm wide. A peritoneal fold called the mesovarium attaches each ovary to the posterior surface of the broad ligament. Two other ligaments are associated with the ovary: the suspensory ligament, which extends from the mesovarium to the body wall, and the ovarian ligament, which attaches the ovary to the superior margin of the uterus. The ovarian arteries, veins, and nerves traverse the suspensory ligament and enter the ovary through the mesovarium.
Term
Describe the formation of secondary oocytes by meiosis. What are polar bodies?
Definition

The formation of female gametes begins in the fetus. By the fourth month of development, the ovaries contain 5 million oogonia (egg generation), the cells from which oocytes develop. By the time of birth, many of the oogonia have degenerated, and the remaining ones have begun meiosis.  Meiosis stops, however, during the first meiotic division at a stage called prophase I. The cell at this stage is called a primary oocyte,and at birth there are about 2 million of them. From birth to puberty, the number of primary oocytes decreases to around 300,000–400,000. Only about 400 primary oocytes will complete development and give rise to the secondary oocytes that are eventually released from the ovaries. Ovulation is the release of a secondary oocyte from an ovary. Just before ovulation, the primary oocyte completes the first meiotic division to produce a secondary oocyte and a polar body.

 

Term
Describe the formation of a zygote. How many pairs of chromosomes are in a zygote and where do they come from?
Definition
After ovulation, the secondary oocyte may be fertilized by a sperm cell. Fertilization begins when a sperm cell binds to the plasma membrane and penetrates the plasma membrane of a secondary oocyte. Subsequently, the secondary oocyte completes the second meiotic division to form two cells, each containing 23 chromosomes. One of these cells has very little cytoplasm and is another polar body that degenerates. In the other, larger cell, the 23 chromosomes from the sperm cell nucleus join with the 23 chromosomes from the oocyte to form a zygote and complete fertilization. The zygote has 23 pairs of chromosomes (a total of 46 chromosomes). All cells of the human body contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, except for the male and female gametes. 
Term
What are the primordial, primary, secondary, and mature follicles?
Definition
 A primordial follicle is a primary oocyte surrounded by a single layer of flat cells, called granulosa cells. Once puberty begins, some of the primordial follicles become primary follicles as the oocyte enlarges and the single layer of granulosa cells becomes enlarged and cuboidal. Approximately every 28 days, hormonal changes stimulate some of the primary follicles to continue to develop. The primary follicle becomes a secondary follicle as fluid-filled spaces called vesicles form among the granulosa cells, and a capsule called the theca forms around the follicleThe secondary follicle continues to enlarge; when the fluid-filled vesicles fuse to form a single, fluid-filled chamber called the antrum, the follicle is called a mature follicle. The oocyte is pushed off to one side and lies in a mass of granulosa cells called the cumulus cells.
Term
Describe the process of ovulation.
Definition

When amature follicle forms a lump on the surface of the ovary. During ovulation, the mature follicle ruptures, forcing a small amount of blood, follicular fluid, and the oocyte, surrounded by the cumulus cells, into the peritoneal cavity. The cumulus cells resemble a crown radiating from the oocyte and are thus called the corona radiataUsually, only one mature follicle reaches the most advanced stages of development and is ovulated. Happens about every 28 days. Primary follice-->secondary follicle-->mature follice-->ovulation. 

Term
What is the corpus luteum? What happens to it if fertilization does or does not occur?
Definition
After ovulation, the follicle still has an important function. It is transformed into a glandular structure called the corpus luteum, which has a convoluted appearance as a result of its collapse after ovulationIf pregnancy occurs, the corpus luteum enlarges and remains throughout pregnancy as the corpus luteum of pregnancy. If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum remains functional for about 10–12 days and then begins to degenerate. 
Term
What are the uterine tubes? What is their structure like?
Definition
uterine tube, is associated with each ovary and extends from the area of the ovary to the uterus. Each tube is located along the superior margin of the broad ligament. The uterine tube opens directly into the peritoneal cavity to receive the oocyte from the ovary. It expands to form the infundibulum, and long, thin processes called fimbriae surround the opening of the infundibulum. The part of the uterine tube that is nearest the infundibulum is called the ampulla. Fertilization usually occurs in the ampulla. The wall of each uterine tube consists of three layers. The outer serosa is formed by the peritoneum, the middle muscular layer consists of longitudinal and circular smooth muscle cells, and the inner mucosa consists of a mucous membrane of simple ciliated columnar epithelium. The mucosa is arranged into numerous longitudinal folds. 
Term
How are the uterine tubes involved in the movement of an oocyte or zygote?
Definition

 

The mucosa of the uterine tubes provides nutrients for the oocyte or, if fertilization has occurred, for the developing embryonic mass as it passes through the uterine tube. The ciliated epithelium helps move the small amount of fluid and the oocyte, or the developing embryonic mass, through the uterine tubes.

Term
What is the uterus? What are its parts?
Definition
The uterus is the size and shape of a medium-sized pear—about 7.5 cm long and 5 cm wide. It is slightly flattened anteroposteriorly and is oriented in the pelvic cavity with the larger, rounded part, the fundus, directed superiorly and the narrower part, the cervix, directed inferiorly. The main part of the uterus, the body, is between the fundus and the cervix. A slight constriction called the isthmus marks the junction of the cervix and the body. Internally, the uterine cavity continues as the cervical canal, which opens through the ostium into the vagina.
Term
What are the ligaments holding the uterus in place?
Definition
The uterus is supported by the broad ligament, the round ligaments, and the uterosacral ligaments. The broad ligament is a peritoneal fold extending from the lateral margins of the uterus to the wall of the pelvis on either side. It also ensheathes the ovaries and the uterine tubes. The round ligaments extend from the uterus through the inguinal canals to the labia majora of the external genitalia, and the uterosacral ligaments attach the lateral wall of the uterus to the sacrum. Normally, the uterus is anteverted, meaning that the body of the uterus is tipped slightly anteriorly.
Term
Describe the layers of the uterine wall.
Definition
The uterine wall is composed of three layers: the perimetrium, the myometrium, and the endometrium. The perimetrium, is the peritoneum that covers the uterus. The next layer, just deep to the perimetrium, is the myometrium, composed of a thick layer of smooth muscle. The myometrium accounts for the bulk of the uterine wall and is the thickest layer of smooth muscle in the body. The innermost layer of the uterus is the endometrium, which consists of a simple columnar epithelial lining and a connective tissue layer called the lamina propria. Simple tubular glands, called spiral glands, are scattered about the lamina propria and open through the epithelium into the uterine cavity. The endometrium consists of two layers: A thin, deep basal layer is the deepest part of the lamina propria and is continuous with the myometrium, and a thicker, superficial functional layer, consisting of most of the lamina propria and the endothelium, lines the cavity itself. Columnar epithelial cells line the cervical canal, which contains cervical mucous glands. The mucus fills the cervical canal and acts as a barrier to substances that could pass from the vagina into the uterus. 
Term
What is the vagina? What are its functions?
Definition
The vagina is the female organ of copulation, receiving the penis during intercourse. It also allows menstrual flow and childbirth. 
Term
Describe the layers of the vaginal wall. 
Definition

Longitudinal ridges called columns extend the length of the anterior and posterior vaginal walls, and several transverse ridges called rugae extend between the anterior and posterior columns. The superior, domed part of the vagina, the fornix, is attached to the sides of the cervix, so that a part of the cervix extends into the vagina. The wall of the vagina consists of an outer muscular layer and an inner mucous membrane. The muscular layer is smooth muscle that allows the vagina to increase in size to accommodate the penis during intercourse and to stretch greatly during childbirth. The mucous membrane is moist stratified squamous epithelium that forms a protective surface layer. The vaginal mucous membrane releases most of the lubricating secretions produced by the female during intercourse.

Term
What are the vulva,vestibule, labia minora, clitoris, and prepuce?
Definition
The external female genitalia, also referred to as the vulva, consist of the vestibule and its surrounding structures. The vestibule is the space into which the vagina opens posteriorly and the urethra opens anteriorly. A pair of thin, longitudinal skin folds called the labia minora form a border on each side of the vestibule. A small, erectile structure called the clitoris is located in the anterior margin of the vestibule. Anteriorly, the two labia minora unite over the clitoris to form a fold of skin called the prepuce.
Term
What erectile tissue is found in the clitoris and bulb of the vestibule?
Definition
The clitoris contains two erectile structures, the corpora cavernosa, each of which expands at the base end of the clitoris to form the crus of the clitoris and attaches the clitoris to the pelvic bones. The corpora cavernosa of the clitoris are comparable to the corpora cavernosa of the penis, and they become engorged with blood as a result of sexual excitement. Erectile tissue that corresponds to the corpus spongiosum of the male lies deep to and on the lateral margins of the vestibular floor on each side of the vaginal orifice. Each erectile body is called a bulb of the vestibuleLike other erectile tissue, it becomes engorged with blood and is more sensitive during sexual arousal. Expansion of the bulbs causes narrowing of the vaginal orifice and allows better contact of the vagina with the penis during intercourse. 
Term
What is the the labia majora, the prudendal cleft, and the mons pubis?
Definition
Lateral to the labia minora are two prominent, rounded folds of skin called the labia majora. Subcutaneous adipose tissue is primarily responsible for the prominence of the labia majora. The two labia majora unite anteriorly in an elevation over the symphysis pubis called the mons pubis. The lateral surfaces of the labia majora and the surface of the mons pubis are covered with coarse hair. The medial surfaces are covered with numerous sebaceous and sweat glands. The space between the labia majora is called the pudendal cleft. 
Term
Where are the greater and lesser vestibule glands located? What is their function?
Definition

On each side of the vestibule, between the vaginal opening and the labia minora, is an opening of the duct of the greater vestibular glandAdditional small mucous glands, the lesser vestibular glands, are located near the clitoris and urethral opening. They produce a lubricating fluid that helps maintain the moistness of the vestibule.


Term
What is the perineum? What is the clincal perineum? What is episiotomy?
Definition
The female perineum is divided into two triangles by the superficial and deep transverse perineal muscles. The anterior urogenital triangle contains the external genitalia, and the posterior anal triangle contains the anal opening. The region between the vagina and the anus is the clinical perineum. The skin and muscle of this region can tear during childbirth. To prevent such tearing, an incision called an episiotomy is sometimes made in the clinical perineum. This clean, straight incision is easier to repair than a tear would be. Alternatively, allowing the perineum to stretch slowly during delivery may prevent tearing, thereby making an episiotomy unnecessary.
Term
What are the mammary gland? What are its parts?
Definition
The mammary glands, the organs of milk production, are located within the breasts . The mammary glands are modified sweat glands. Externally, the breasts of both males and females have a raised nipple surrounded by a circular, pigmented areola. The areolae normally have a slightly bumpy surface caused by the presence of rudimentary mammary glands, called areolar glands, just below the surface. Secretions from these glands protect the nipple and the areola from chafing during nursing.
Term
Trace the route of milk from its site of production to the outside of the body.
Definition

Each adult female mammary gland usually consists of 15–20 glandular lobes covered by a considerable amount of adipose tissue. It is primarily this superficial adipose tissue that gives the breast its form. The lobes of each mammary gland form a conical mass, with the nipple located at the apex. Each lobe has a single lactiferous (milk-producing)duct, which opens independently of other lactiferous ducts on the surface of the nipple. Just deep to the surface, each lactiferous duct enlarges to form a small, spindle-shaped lactiferous sinus, where milk accumulates during milk ejection. The lactiferous duct supplying a lobe subdivides to form smaller ducts, each of which supplies a lobule. Within a lobule, the ducts branch and become even smaller. In milk-producing, or lactating, mammary glands, the ends of these small ducts expand to form secretory sacs called alveoli. Myoepithelial cells surround the alveoli and contract to expel milk. In non-lactating mammary glands, only the duct system is present.

Term
What is menarche? What changes occur during females in puberty?
Definition
During puberty, females experience their first episode of menstrual bleeding, called menarche, between ages 11 and 16. The vagina, uterus, uterine tubes, and external genitalia begin to enlarge. Adipose tissue is deposited in the breasts and around the hips, causing them to enlarge and assume adult form. The ducts of the breasts develop, pubic and axillary hair grows, and the voice changes, although more subtly than in males. The development of sex drive is also associated with puberty.
Term
What changes occur in LH, FSH, estrogen, and progesterone secretion during puberty?
Definition

 

Elevated rates of estrogen and progesterone secretion by the ovaries are primarily responsible for the changes associated with puberty. Before puberty, estrogen and progesterone are secreted in very small amounts, and LH and FSH levels remain very low. The low secretory rates are due to a lack of GnRH released from the hypothalamus. At puberty, not only are GnRH, LH, and FSH secreted in greater quantities than before puberty, but also the adult cyclic pattern of FSH and LH secretion is established.

Term
What is the menstrual cycle? How long does it last? What is menses and menstruation?
Definition
The term menstrual cycle technically refers to the cyclic changes in sexually mature, nonpregnant females that culminate in menses. Typically, the menstrual cycle is about 28 days long, although it can be as short as 18 days in some women and as long as 40 days in others Menses is a period of mild hemorrhage that occurs approximately once each month, during which the uterine epithelium is sloughed and expelled from the uterus. Menstruation is the discharge of the blood and other elements of the uterine mucous membrane.
Term
What are the major events during the menstruation cycle?
Definition
The first day of menses is considered day 1 of the menstrual cycle, and menses typically lasts 4–5 days. Ovulation occurs on about day 14 of a 28-day menstrual cycle. The time between ovulation, on day 14, and the next menses is typically 14 days. The time between the ending of menses and ovulation is called the proliferative phase, because of the rapid proliferation of the uterine mucosa, or the follicular phase, because of the rapid development of ovarian follicles. The period after ovulation and before the next menses is called the secretory phase, because of the maturation of and secretion by uterine glands, or the luteal phasebecause of the existence of the corpus luteum.
Term
What is the ovarian cycle? What controls it?
Definition
The term ovarian cycle refers to the regular events that occur in the ovaries of sexually mature, nonpregnant women during the menstrual cycle. The hypothalamus and anterior pituitary release hormones that control these events. FSH from the anterior pituitary is primarily responsible for initiating the development of primary follicles, and as many as 25 follicles begin to mature during each menstrual cycle. 
Term
What roles do FSH and LH have on the ovarian cycle?
Definition

FSH and LH stimulate follicular growth and maturation. They also cause an increase in estrogen secretion by the developing follicles. FSH exerts its main effect on the granulosa cells, whereas LH exerts its initial effect on the theca interna cells and later on the granulosa cells. LH stimulates the theca interna cells to produce androgens, which diffuse from these cells to the granulosa cells. FSH stimulates the granulosa cells to convert androgens to estrogen. In addition, FSH gradually increases LH receptors in the granulosa cells. Estrogen produced by the granulosa cells increases LH receptors in the theca interna cells. Consequently, theca interna cells and granulosa cells cooperate to produce estrogen. After LH receptors in the granulosa cells have increased, LH stimulates the granulosa cells to produce progesterone, which diffuses from the granulosa cells to the theca interna cells, where it is converted to androgens.

Term
What is the imporance of the LH surge and FSH surge in the ovarian cycle?
Definition

The gradual increase in estrogen levels, especially late in the follicular phase, begins to have a positive-feedback effect on LH and FSH release from the anterior pituitary. Consequently, as the estrogen level in the blood increases, it stimulates greater LH and FSH secretion. The sustained increase in estrogen is necessary for this positive-feedback effect. In response, LH and FSH secretion increases rapidly and in large amounts just before ovulation. The increase in blood levels of both LH and FSH is called the LH surge, and the increase in FSH is called the FSH surge. The LH surge occurs several hours earlier and to a greater degree than the FSH surge, and the LH surge can last up to 24 hours. The LH surge initiates ovulation and causes the ovulated follicle to become the corpus luteum. FSH can make the follicle more sensitive to the influence of LH by stimulating the synthesis of additional LH receptors in the follicles and by stimulating the development of follicles that may ovulate during later ovarian cycles.

The LH surge causes the primary oocyte to complete the first meiotic division just before or during the process of ovulation.

Term
What is hCG, where is it produced, and what effect does it have on the ovary?
Definition
If the ovulated oocyte is fertilized, the outer layer of the developing embryo begins to secrete the LH-like substance human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which keeps the corpus luteum from degenerating. As a result, blood levels of estrogen and progesterone do not decrease, and menses does not occur. If fertilization does not occur, hCG is not produced. The cells of the corpus luteum begin to atrophy after day 25 or 26, and the blood levels of estrogen and progesterone decrease rapidly, resulting in menses.
Term
What are the effects of estrogen and proesterone on the uterus?
Definition
Estrogen causes the endometrial cells and, to a lesser degree, the myometrial cells to proliferate. It also makes the uterine tissue more sensitive to progesterone by stimulating the synthesis of progesterone receptor molecules within the uterine cells. After ovulation, progesterone from the corpus luteum binds to the progesterone receptors, resulting in cellular hypertrophy in the endometrium and myometrium and causing the endometrial cells to become secretory. Estrogen increases the tendency of the smooth muscle cells of the uterus to contract in response to stimuli, but progesterone inhibits smooth muscle contractions. When progesterone levels increase while estrogen levels are low, contractions of the uterine smooth muscle are reduced.
Term
What is the uterine cycle?
Definition

The term uterine cycle refers to changes that occur primarily in the endometrium of the uterus during the menstrual cycle. Other, more subtle changes also take place in the vagina and other structures during the menstrual cycle. Cyclic secretions of estrogen and progesterone are the primary cause of these changes. The endometrium of the uterus begins to proliferate after menses. The remaining epithelial cells rapidly divide and replace the cells of the functional layer that were sloughed during the last menses. A relatively uniform layer of low cuboidal endometrial cells is produced. The cells later become columnar, and the layer of cells folds to form tubular spiral glands. Blood vessels called spiral arteries project through the delicate connective tissue that separates the individual spiral glands to supply nutrients to the endometrial cells. After ovulation, the endometrium becomes thicker, and the spiral glands develop to a greater extent and begin to secrete small amounts of a fluid rich in glycogen.

 

 
Term
Compare female sex drive with male sex drive.
Definition
The female sex drive, like the sex drive in males, depends on hormones. The adrenal gland and other tissues, such as the liver, convert steroids, such as progesterone, to androgens. The neural pathways, both sensory and motor, involved in controlling sexual responses are the same for males and females. During sexual excitement, as a result of parasympathetic stimulation, erectile tissue within the clitoris and around the vaginal opening becomes engorged with blood. The nipples of the breast often become erect as well. The mucous glands within the vestibule secrete small amounts of mucus. Large amounts of mucuslike fluid are also extruded into the vagina through its wall, although no well-developed mucous glands are within the vaginal wall. These secretions provide lubrication that allows for easy entry of the penis into the vagina and easy movement of the penis during intercourse. Tactile stimulation of the female's genitals that occurs during sexual intercourse, along with psychological stimuli, normally triggers an orgasm. The vaginal, uterine, and perineal muscles contract rhythmically, and muscle tension increases throughout much of the body. After the sex act, a period of resolution characterized by an overall sense of satisfaction and relaxation occurs. 
Term
How is sperm transported through the female reproductive system?
Definition
After sperm cells are ejaculated into the vagina during sexual intercourse, they are transported through the cervix, the body of the uterus, and the uterine tubes to the ampulla. The forces responsible for moving sperm cells through the female reproductive tract include the swimming ability of the sperm cells and possibly the muscular contractions of the uterus and the uterine tubes. During sexual intercourse, oxytocin is released from the posterior pituitary of the female, and the semen introduced into the vagina contains prostaglandins. Both of these hormones stimulate smooth muscle contractions in the uterus and uterine tubes.
Term
What is capacitation of sperm cells?
Definition
While passing through the vagina, uterus, and uterine tubes, the sperm cells undergo capacitation, the removal of proteins and the modification of glycoproteins of the sperm cell plasma membranes. Following capacitation, as the sperm cells move through the female reproductive tract, some of them release acrosomal enzymes. These enzymes help the sperm cells penetrate the cervical mucus, cumulus mass, zona pellucida, and oocyte plasma membrane.
Term
What are the events that follow fertilization ?
Definition
The oocyte can be fertilized for up to 24 hours after ovulation, and some sperm cells remain viable in the female reproductive tract for up to 6 days, although most of them have degenerated after 24 hours. For the next several days following fertilization, a sequence of cell divisions occurs while the developing embryo passes through the uterine tube to the uterus. 
Term
Describe the implantation of the embryo and the formation of the placenta.
Definition
By 7 or 8 days after ovulation, which is day 21 or 22 of the average menstrual cycle, the endometrium of the uterus has been prepared for implantation. Estrogen and progesterone have caused it to reach its maximum thickness and secretory activity, and the developing embryo begins to implant. The outer layer of the developing embryo, the trophoblast, secretes proteolytic enzymes that digest the cells of the thickened endometrium, and the developing embryo digests its way into the endometrium. The trophoblast secretes hCG, which is transported in the blood to the ovary and causes the corpus luteum to remain functional. As a consequence, both estrogen and progesterone levels continue to increase rather than decrease. The secretion of hCG increases rapidly and reaches a peak about 8–9 weeks after fertilization. The estrogen and progesterone secreted by the corpus luteum are essential for the maintenance of pregnancy. After the placenta forms from the trophoblast and uterine tissue, however, it also begins to secrete estrogen and progesterone.
Term
What is menopause and what is the female climacteric?
Definition

When a woman is 40–50 years old, menstrual cycles become less regular, and ovulation often does not occur consistently. Eventually, menstrual cycles stop completely. The cessation of menstrual cycles is called menopause. The time from the onset of irregular cycles to their complete cessation, which is often 3 to 5 years, is called the female climacteric. Menopause is associated with changes in the ovaries. The number of follicles remaining in the ovaries of menopausal women is small. In addition, the follicles that remain become less sensitive to stimulation by LH and FSH; therefore, fewer mature follicles and corpora lutea are produced. Older women experience gradual changes in response to the reduced amount of estrogen and progesterone produced by the ovaries.

Supporting users have an ad free experience!