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| architect who replaced Paris's narrow streets and old city walls with broad boulevards, spacious buildings, circular plazas, public squares, an underground sewage system, a new public water supply, and gaslights |
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| (1853-1856) Conflict in which the Russians waged war against Ottomans for control of the Black Sea. Britain and France intervened on the Ottoman side and defeated Russia at the fortress of Sevastopol in September, 1855. It resulted in the destruction of the Concert of Europe and an Austrian-Russian feud. |
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| British nurse whose emphasis on cleanliness and training for nurses revolutionized health care. She is well known for her work during the Crimean War. |
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| King of Piedmont, Savoy, and Sardinia. Eventually became first king of a united Italy. Led the north in Italian unification and united with Garibaldi's south in 1861. Drove the pope into the Vatican city, and eventually made Rome the capital of Italy. |
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| Prime minister of Victor Emmanuel II. He was a liberal-minded nobleman who expanded the economy of Piedmont-Sardinia and built up an army. He oversaw the creation of a united Italy under the control of the Piedmontese king. |
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| A dedicated Italian patriot who had supported Mazzini and the republican cause of Young Italy. He fought against the Bourbon monarch in southern Italy and played a vital role in the unification of Italy. |
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| Volunteers who fought under Giuseppe Garibaldi that were known for their distinctive dress. Starting in May, 1860, they helped defeat the Bourbon king of the Two Sicilies and then proceeded to mainland Italy. |
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| Successor to Frederick William IV. He wanted to double the size of the army and require three years of compulsory military service for all young men. He appointed Otto von Bismarck as his Prime Minister and eventually became the emperor of the Second German Empire. |
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| Prime minister under King William I who oversaw the unification of Germany. He won the Danish War (1864), the Austro-Prussian War (1866), and the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). He is also associated witht the Ems Dispatch and a policy of Realpolitik. |
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| Politics based on practical (such as the needs of the state) rather than moral or ideological considerations. This idea is Machiavellian in some aspects. |
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| In 1864 after three months of fighting, Denmark surrendered to Prussia and Austria. They were forced to give up two duchies; Prussia would administer Schleswig and Austria would administer Holstein. |
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| Austro-Prussian War of 1866 |
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| Also known as the Seven Weeks' War, it was engineered by Bismarck as part of his master plan to unify Germany under the Prussian monarchy. Prussian troops surprised and overwhelmed a larger Austrian force, winning victory in only seven weeks. The result was that Austria was expelled from the old German Confederation and a new North German Confederation, completely under the control of Prussia, was created. Southern German states were left independent, but were coerced into military treaties with Prussia. Austria lost Venetia, which was given to the united Italian state. |
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| Franco-Prussian War of 1870 |
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| War between France and Prussia over a dispute of a relative of the Prussian king to the throne of Spain. France declared war on Prussia in 1870 following the Ems Dispatch, which Bismarck had edited to sound more provocative and angry. The south German states and Prussian defeated the French at Sedan in September, 1870 and continued until Paris capitulated in January 1871. France's defeat caused them to pay about 5 billion francs and lost provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to the new German state. |
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| On January 28, 1871, William I was proclaimed emperor of this in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles (the first German empire had been the Holy Roman Empire). |
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| Emancipation of serfs, establishment of a system of zemstovs, and the legal reforms of 1864 |
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| Emancipation of the Serfs |
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| Issued by Alexander II on March 3, 1861. It freed the serfs, but they were subjected to the authority of the mir, or village commune. |
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| Tory leader in Parliament who supported the Reform Act of 1867 (which lowered the monetary requirements to vote) because he thought it would encourage newly enfranchised voters to join and support the Conservative Party. |
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| British Prime Minister from 1855 - 1865 who was a Whig but was able to compromise across party lines. He opposed expanding voting rights. |
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| First Liberal Prime Minister who served from 1868 - 1874. He opened civil service positions to exams rather than patronage, introduced the secret ballot, and abolished the purchasing of military commissions. He also supported the Education Act of 1870, which tried to made education available to all children. |
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| Influential thinker and economist who came from a prosperous middle-class family in Trier in western Germany. He studied at the University of Bonn and then the University of Berlin. He received a PhD in philosophy and became a journalist. With the help of Friedrich Engels, he wrote and published "The Communist Manifesto" in 1848. He was extremely anti-Capitalist (he was a socialist) and his theories were built on thoughts of George Hegel. |
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| Was the son of a wealthy factory owner. He supported Marx's ideas, but his writings emphasized the effects of capitalism and the Industrial Revolution on the family. He helped write/publish "The Communist Manifesto". |
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| International Workingmen's Association |
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| Also the called First International. It was an international organization which aimed at uniting a variety of different left-wing socialist, communist, and anarchist political groups and trade union organizations that were based on the working class and class struggle. Karl Marx served on General Council of the association. |
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| English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection. Wrote On the Origins of Species by Means of Natural Selection |
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| An artistic movement that rose after 1850 which stated that the world should be viewed realistically. It was closely related to the growing materialistic outlook of society. |
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