corn glutten meal (dry milling corn)

distillers dried grain (most common)

brewers dried grains (beer)

pheumonia-like symptoms

diarrhea

fetal death

abortion

liver damage

male sterility

dried milk products

fish meal

feather meal

meat, tankage, and blood meal

dried skim milk (CP = 33.4%)

dried buttermilk (CP = 3.7%)

dried whole milk (CP = 25.4%)

Benefits: highly palpable, highly digestible, high biological value, excellent quality protein

Drawbacks: $$$

1) measurement of how closely a source's amino acid composition matches the host's needs

2) an animal trial that measures protein quality

3) BV = (retained N/absorbed N) x 100%

consists of unusable animal tissues (bone, blood, gut, tendon, connective tissues, and fat)

Note: connective tissue reduces BV

steam cooking

drying

grinding

NPN is fed to mature/ acclimated ruminants (feedlot cattle) as a source of Nitogen and/or Phosophorus for the microbes 

Note: NPN is NOT an energy source, vitamin, or mineral

Urea (N = 45%)

Biuret (N = 37%)

Monoammonium phosphate (N = 12%)

NOTE: NPN is fed as a source of Nitogen and/or Phosophorus for rumen microbes 

NOTE: Nitrogen is required in order for protein synthesis to occur

buffers

antibodies

enzymes

hormones

connective tissues

blood clotting (vitamin K)

visual pigments (vitamin A)

transporting agents

structual components

osmotic regulators

basic (additional NH2)

acidic (additional COOH)

aromatic (ring structure)

branched chain (additional hydrocarbon chain)

sufur contianing

simple: when hydrolyzed yield only free amino acids

conjugated: when hydrolyzed yield free amino acids and prosthetic group 

fibrous: insoluble in water (low digestibility)

globular: soluble in water

primary

secondary

tertiary

quaterinary

alpha-helix: hydrogen 

beta-pleated sheets: hydrogen 

triple helix: collagen and connective tissues 

hydrogen

disulfide

salt linkages

similar to tertiary (hydrogen, disulfide, salt linkages)

Note: extra AA found in cytoplasm and blood

taurine

NOTE: taurine is a derivative of the non-essential ammino acid cysteine

Biological Value (BV)

Nitrogen Balance

Protein Efficiency  Ratio (PER)

Slope Ratio Assay

Net Protein Utilization

Net Protein Ratio (NPR)

MFN = metabolic fecal nitrogen

EUN = endogenous urinary nitrogen 

BV = (retained N/absorbed N) x 100%

= [NI-(FN-MFN)-(UN-EUN)] / [NI-(FN-MFN)]

NOTE: MFN stands for 'metabolic fecal nitrogen' and EUN stands for 'endogenous urinary nitrogen'

Nitrogen Balance = NI-(UN+FN)

Note: this is the animal trial most commonly used for measuring protein quality 

Phenylalanine - aromatic (gluco and ketogenic)

Valine - branched chain

Tryptophan - aromatic (ketogenic)

Threonine - neutral

Isolecuine - branched chain

Methionine - sulfur containing 

Histadine - basic

Arginine - basic 

Lysine - basic (ketogenic)

Leucine - branched chain (ketogenic)

PT GAGAGA CS

Proline

Tyrosine - aromatic (gluto and ketogenic)

Glutamic Acid - acidic

Aspartic Acid - acidic

Glycine

Alanine

Glutamine

Asparogine

Cysteine - sulfur containing

Serine

hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine

Note: would be considered congugated 

Pepsinogen

Gelatinase

Rennin

Tyrpsin

Chymotrypsin

Elastase 

Carboxypeptidase A

Carboxypeptidase B

cleaves bonds in which basic amino acids donate the carboxyl group

Basic Amino Acids: Histadien, Arginine, Lysine

cleaves bonds in which the aromatic amino acid donates the carboxyl group

Aromatic Amino Acids: Phenylalanine, Tryptophan, Tyrosine

cleaves aromatic amino acids from the c-terminal end

Aromatic Amino Acids: phenylalanine, tryptophan, tyrosine

aminopeptidases

dipeptidases

tripeptidases

The microbes themselves can serve as an excellent source of protein (providing 70%), or they can make protein to be utilized by the ruminant

NOTE: microbial activity takes place in the rumen, but the protein (whether it be made by the microbes or be from the microbes themselves) is digested in the small intestine 

dipeptides and tripeptides; 70%

NOTE: dipeptidies, tripeptidies, and intracellular enzymes (secreted as peptidases in the small intestine) cleave the dipeptides and tripeptides that are absorbed

acidic

basic

neutral

imino/ glycine

NOTE: all pathways require active absorption, ATP, and Na

precursor for taurin and taurichloric acid

NOTE: taurine is the limitng amino acid in felines

Melanin, Epinephrine, Norepinephrine, T3 & T4

a carbon skeleton and a source of nitrogen

NOTE: amino acids contain an ammonia (NH₃) group and a carboxylic acid group (COOH)?

amination

transamination (movement of amino acid groups)

deamination 

glucogenic

ketogenic

gluco and ketogenic

energy is stored directly as fat

examples: leucine, lysine, tryptophan

carbon skeleton can either go on to make glucose or be stored directly as fat; usually goes the ketogenic pathway

examples: phenylaline and tyrosine 

amino acids

allantoin

protein

amino sugars

vitamins

creatinine 

2 NH₃ + CO₂ + 2 H₂O + 3 ATP --> Urea + 2 ADP + 1 AMP + 2 Pi + 1 PPi

toxicity

antagonism

imbalance

an ingestion of large qualities of an individual amino acid or inborn errors in metabolism

NOTE: cannot get by just ingesting protein; sulfur containing amino acids are the most toxic followed by basic and branched chain respectively 

excessive amounts of one amino acid within the system that has a similar structure to another amino acid; causes growth depression

NOTE: this usually occurs with basic amino acids (i.e. arginine and lysine)

non-ruminants: glucogentic amino acids

ruminants: volatile fatty acid (VFA), propionate

NOTE: there are 3 types of carbon skeletons (glucogenic, ketogenic, and gluco and ketogenic). remember that glucogenic carbon skeletons are the one used to make glucose 

In gluconeogenesis, you cannot go directly from pyruvate to phosphonenolpyruvate. Therefore you need malate and oxaloacetate to act as a shunt

There is a different enzymes used between fructose 1,6-bisphosphate and fructose 6-phosphate. gluconeogenesis uses hexose biphosphatase

A different enzyme catalyzes the step between glucose 6-phosphate and glucose. gluconeogenesis uses hexose phosphatase  

reconstructing (muscle tissue)

cell and tissue repair

enzyme and hormone production

antibodies

removal of harmful proteins 

replace transport proteins

Small Intestine Mucose = 136%

Liver - 85%

Kidney = 48% 

Heart and Brain = 17%

Muscle = 13% (varries tremondously) 

hay and artifically dried forage

NOTE: artificially dried forage has 88-92 % DM. This helps preserve nutrients and pigments,  but is expensive to do

straw - left after grain

stover - left after corn grain

stalk - left after sugar removed 

hulls - whats removed before rice, cottonseed, soybean are processed

NOTE: crop residue is typically a by-product of grain or food crops (generally composed of mature stems)

product of wilting cut grass in a field for 2-4 days and then storing it in dry conditions.

This process decreses moisture in order to decrease microbial activity and increase vitamin B. However, dryness also results in carotene losses

species

drying conditions

drying duration

maturity stage at harvest

fertilization

nutrient losses on the field or in storage

respiration loss (greater under humid conditions) --> 4-15%

leaf loss (greater in legumes than in grasses)

leaching (due to rain) --> 5-14%

spontaneous combustion (65% DM) --> packaging dicourages

Heat damage (70-80% DM) --> due to microbial activity

which can denature proteins and facilitates molding

putting up wet hay

make sure forage maintains 85-90% DM

store inside

treat with propionic acid and anhydrogen ammonia (also increases quality)

NOTE: if forage is stored outside expect to have 10% exterior loss

straw - left after grain harvest

stalks - sugarcan and bagasse, left after sugar removed

stover - left after corn grain is harvested

hulls - rice, cottonseed, soybean

undried forage harvested and fed immediately

high quality and a high yield

labor intinsive

often used in the dairy industry 

ceareal silages

temerate grasses

tropical grasses

legumes

haylage 

corn, wheat, sorghum

whole plant ensiled

palpable 

ryegrass, timothy

high NPN, sugar, and protein

low NDF

good ruminant feed

bermuda, bahaigrass

low sugars, poor fermentation

high NDF

peas, beans, clover, alfalfa

high CP

difficult to ensile due to high buffering capacity 

wet hay that has been put up (very beneficial in FL)

highest DM value of silage (40-60% DM)

difficult to pack 

chopping/ grinding

pelleting

cubbing 

Benefits: provides uniform product which facilitates intake by minimizing selection, increasing density, and increasing surface area 

Drawbacks: increased rate of passage (due to increased rumen acidity), decreased digestibility, and increased dustiness 

spraying fat

soaking in water

soaking in molasses (increases palatability)

Benefits: increase intake, increase rate of passage , not dusty therefore better ground forage

Drawbacks: possible chocking hazard on large pellets and expensive due to the need to chop/ grind a forage before pelleting

Benefits: easier to transport/ handle than bailed forage; increased homogeneity 

Drawbacks: causes a decrease in dairy cow salivation which results in a decrease in cellulose digestion due to high outflow rate which in turn results in decreased acetate production and milk fat 

processing

diet components

palatability

gut capacity

passage rate

age, sex, hierarchy 

physiological state/ production level

health

condition score

individual preference

appetite

NOTE: appetite is increased in young, growing andimal and pregnant or lactating animals 

stocking rate

feedbunk design

forage treatments

feeding frequency

water intake

cow comfort 

temperature

humidity

NOTE: cold temperatures increase appetite while hot temperature decrease appetite

ration factors

animal factors

management factors

temperature factors

irrigation

fertilizer

maturity of forage

pre-harvest handling

species of forage

chemical and botanical composition 

leaf:stem ratio

antinutritive factors (toxins, mold, etc.)

protein content, digestibility 

visual

chemical analysis

prediction equations 

American Forage Grasslands Council (AFGC)

leafy, green, good stem, maturity, smell, species (estimate nutrient content from species)

- yield no energy

- never polorized

- effective in small amounts 

- deficiency affects other nutriend utilization

- effects of supplementation following a defieciency are practically immediate 

maximize growth

maximize reproductive potential 

minimize production costs

enhance the health and well being of the animal 

drought

forced production

antimetabolites

refinement/ processing

paricle size (finner the size, the less potency)

pH (desire a more acidic pH)

carriers (commonly rice hauls)

vitamin/ mineral premixes

environmental conditions

temperature

storage time

humidity

light 

vitamin A

vitamin D

vitamin E

vitamin K

vitamin C

vitamin B complex (B₁, B₂, B₃, B₅, B₆, B₇, B₉, B₁₂)

fat-soluble vitamin = hydrophobic

water-soluble vitamin = hydrophilic 

little to no storage

NOTE: vitamin B₁₂ is stored within the bofy for a few weeks

fat-soluble vitamins excreted as feces

water-soluble vitamin excreted as urine

fat-soluble vitamins: possible because stored within the body for extended periods of time

water-soluble vitamins: unlikely becuse do not remain in the body for very long 

regulator

antioxidant

immune system (both passive and active)

vision

energy transfer

antioxidant

protein synthesis (vitamin B6 necessary for amination, transamination, and deamination)

important as co-enzymes

thiamin

riboflavin

niacin

pantethoic acid 

yield only free amino acids