Shared Flashcard Set

Details

Practical #3
n/a
128
Anatomy
Undergraduate 4
10/14/2012

Additional Anatomy Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
Endocrine
Definition
secrete products(hormones)into
the internal environment(the blood)
Term
Exocrine
Definition
secrete products (ie: enzymes, digestive juices, etc.) into the external environment (ie: digestive tract or skin)
Term
Hormone
Definition
A chemical transported throughout the body in blood and binds to target cell receptors

_____ cause changes in the activity of their target cells to maintain homeostasis
Term
What are the major endocrine glands? (8)
Definition
Hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid & parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries & testes, pineal gland, thymus
Term
What other system works closely with the endocrine system to maintain homeostasis?
Definition
the nervous system.
Term
What type of signaling molecule does the endocrine system use?
Definition
Hormones
Term
What type of signaling molecule does the nervous system use?
Definition
Neuro-transmitters
Term
Which system (the endocrine or nervous) works more quickly?
Definition
The nervous system, because neuro-transmitters transmit messages faster then hormones. They are more direct where are hormones have to travel to site.
Term
Human Growth Hormone
Definition
Gland: Anterior Pituitary

Location of target cells: cartilage, bone, skeletal muscle, and other body tissues

Hormone function: stimulates secretion of hormones that stimulate body growth and metabolism
Term
Thyroid stimulating hormone
Definition
Gland: Anterior Pituitary

Location of target cells: thyroid gland

Hormone function: stimulates growth of thyroid gland and secretion of its hormones
Term
follicle stimulating hormone
Definition
Gland: Anterior pituitary

Location of target cells: testes, ovaries

Hormone function: stimulates sperm production or stimulates oocyte production and estrogen production
Term
Luteinizing hormone
Definition
Gland: Anterior Pituitary

Location of target cell: testes, ovaries

Hormone Function: Stimulates secretion of testosterone or triggers ovulation and stimulates secretion of estrogen and progesterone
Term
Prolactin
Definition
Gland: Anterior Pituitary

Location of Target Cells: Mammary Gland

Hormone Function: stimulates production and secretion of milk
Term
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Definition
Gland: Anterior Pituitary

Location of target cell: adrenal cortex

Hormone function: stimulates secretion of hormones by adrenal cortex
Term
melanocyte hormone
Definition
Gland: Anterior Pituitary

Location of target cells: skin

Hormone function: darkens skin pigmentation
Term
anti-diuretic hormone
Definition
Gland: Posterior Pituitary

Location of Target cells: kidneys

Hormone function: decreases water lost in urine by returning water to the blood.
Term
oxytocin
Definition
Gland: Posterior Pituitary

Location of target cells: uterus and mammary glands

Hormone Function: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk ejection during suckling
Term
thyroxine
Definition
Gland: Thyroid gland

Location of target cells: most body cells

Hormone function: increases metabolism and basal metabolic rate (BMR).
Term
triiodothyronine
Definition
Gland: Thyroid Gland

Location of Target Cells: Most body cells

Hormone Function: Increases metabolism and BMR
Term
calcitonin
Definition
Gland: Thyroid Gland

Location of Target Cells: Osteoclast cells in bones

Hormone Function: Decreases blood calcium levels by inhibiting osteoclasts
Term
Parathroid Hormone
Definition
Gland: Parathyroid Glands

Location of target cells: Osteoclast cells in bones

Hormone Function: Increases blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts to break down bone matrix
Term
Aldosterone
Definition
Gland: Adrenal Cortex

Location of Target Cells: Kidneys

Hormone Functions: Decreases sodium and water loss in urine by returning sodium and water to the blood
Term
Cortisol
Definition
Gland: Adrenal Gland

Location of target cells: Liver, muscle, and cells involved in body defenses

Hormone Function: Increases resistance to stress, increases blood glucose levels, and decrease inflammation
Term
Androgens
Definition
Gland: Adrenal Cortex

Location of Target Cells: Uterus, mammary glands, and other body cells involved in secondary sex characteristics.

Hormone Function: insignificant in males; increases sex drive in females
Term
Epinephrine
Definition
Gland: Adrenal Medulla

Location of target cells: body cells involved in fight-or-flight response

Hormone function: promotes fight-or-flight response
Term
Norepinephrine
Definition
Gland: Adrenal Medulla

Location of target cells: body cells involved in fight-or-flight response

Hormone Function: promotes fight-or-flight response
Term
Insulin
Definition
Gland: Pancreas

Location of target cells: most body cells

Hormone function: decreases blood glucose levels by transporting glucose into body cells
Term
Glucagon
Definition
Gland: Pancreas

Location of target cells: liver

Hormone function: increases blood glucose levels by stimulating liver to break down glycogen into glucose
Term
Estrogen
Definition
Gland: Ovaries

Location of target cells: uterus, mammary glands, and other body cells involved in female sexual characteristics

Hormone function: stimulates development of female sex characteristics, helps regulate menstrual cycle
Term
Progesterone
Definition
Gland: Ovaries

Location of target cells: uterus, mammary glands, and other body cells involved in female sexual characteristics

Hormone function: stimulates development of female sex characteristics, helps regulate menstrual cycyle
Term
Testosterone
Definition
Gland: Testes

Location of target cells: Testes, muscle, and other body cells involved in male sexual characteristics

Hormone Function: Stimulates development of male sex characteristics; stimulates male sex drive; regulates sperm production
Term
Melatonin
Definition
Gland: Pineal Gland

Location of target cells: brain

Hormone Function: helps to set biological clock
Term
Thymosin
Definition
Gland: Thymus

Location of target cells: T cells (type of white blood cell involved in immune response)

Hormone function: Promotes the maturation of T cells for the immune response
Term
hypothroidism
Definition
thyroid gland makes insufficient amounts of T3 and T4

Worldwide the most common cited cause is due to iodine deficiency. Iodine is a necessary precursor in the synthesis of T3 and T4. Many other causes including: congenital, postpartum, iatrogenic, and connections to stress

Symptoms: fatigue/sluggishness, sensitivity to cold, weight gain, puffy face, aches and stiffness

Blood test (TSH) - High TSH levels in hypothroidism

treatment: treat with synthetic throid hormone (drug) ie: levothryroxine
Term
Hyperthyroidism
Definition
Thyroid gland oversecretes T3 and T4

Multiple causes including: Grave's disease (autoimmune) adenoma, throiditis, and postpartum throiditis

symptoms: sudden weight loss, rapid heart beat/irregular HB, increase in appetite, unusual sweating, fatigue, difficulty sleeping, and goiter (enlarged thyroid)

Blood test (TSH) - low TSH levels in inditive of hyperthroidism

treatment: anti-throid medication (make it more difficult to synthesize thyroid hormone) and sometimes surgery (throidectomy)
Term
Gigantism
Definition
Cause: Overproduction of human growth hormone during childhood (before long epiphyses close). Most commonly due to a benign tumor of the pituitary gland. Acromegaly resutls from excess GH in adulthood.

Characterized by excessive growth and height substantially above average. Average final height of individuals with gigantism is 7-9ft. Other symptoms include: headaches, delayed puberty, increased sweating, large hands & feet with thick fingers & toes, general weakness

Treatment: Generally surgery to remove the hormone-producing tumor
Term
Diabetes Mellitus
Definition
Different types:
Type I - results from the body's failure to produce insulin (usually due to an autoimmune cause); beta-cell dysfunction
Type II - results from insulin resistance a condition in which cells fail to use/respond to insulin properly, sometimes combined with an absolute insulin deficiency
Gestational - occurs in pregnant women not previously diagnosed with DM

Symptoms/Complications:
polyuria - increased urination
Polydipsia - increased thirst
Polyphagia - increased hunger
Reinopathy - inflammation/damage to the retina of eye
Nephropathy - damage/ disease of the kidney
Neuropathy - damage to a nerve/ nerve groups

Diagnosis:
-Fasting plasma glucose: >126mg/dl
-Casual plasma glucose: >200mg/dl
-2hr plasma glucose during a 75g oral glucose tolerance test > 200mg/dl
-pre-diabetes = fasting plasma glucose (100-125 mg/dl) normal: 70-100mg/dl

Treatment:
-Lifestyle Changes such as weight loss and exercise (mainly Type II DM)
-insulin injections (especially Type I DM)
-Medication (metformin-suppresses glucose production at the liver)
Term
Digestive System
Definition
Includes organs of the GI (gastrointestinal) tract or alimentary canal and accessory digestive organs
Term
GI tract
Definition
tube that extends from the mouth to the anus
Term
Functions of the Digestive system
Definition
ingestion of food, secretion of digestive juices and enzymes, mixing and propulsion of food, digestion of food into small, absorbable molecules (both mechanical and chemical digestion), absorption of digestive products, and defecation
Term
GI tract organs
Definition
mouth -> most of the pharynx -> esophagus -> stomach -> small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum) -> large intestine -> rectum -> anus
Term
What are the accessory digestive organs?
Definition
teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas
Term
What are the four layer that make up digestive wall?
Definition
Mucosa - surface epithelium, CT (lamina propria), & smooth muscle (muscularis mucosa) (superficial)

Submucosa - areolar CT

Muscularis externa - inner circular smooth muscle + outer longitudinal smooth muscle

Serosa (deep) - visceral layer of the peritoneum (Note: called the adventitia in the esophagus)
Term
Peritoneum
Definition
largest serous membrane in the body
Term
Parietal peritoneum
Definition
lines the inner surface of abdominopelvic wall
Term
Visceral peritoneum (serosa)
Definition
covers organs within the abdominopelvic cavity
Term
Retroperitoneal organs
Definition
organs that lie outside of the peritoneal cavity
Term
folds
Definition
the peritoneum contains large _____ that secure organs together and to the abdominal walls.

These are: Mesentery, mesocolon, falciform ligament, greater omentum & lesser omentum
Term
The Mesentery holds what?
Definition
Holds the small intestine to the posterior abdominal wall
Term
The mesocolon holds what?
Definition
Holds the large intestine to the posterior abdominal wall
Term
The lesser omentum connects what?
Definition
connects the stomach to the liver
Term
The greater omentum is what type of layer?
Definition
fatty layer lining the anterior surface of the colon and small intestine
Term
What does the falciform ligament hold?
Definition
Holds the liver to the anterior abdominal wall
Term
What is the mouth used for?
Definition
Mechanical mastication (chewing)
Term
What is the pharynx used for? (What is propulsion?)
Definition
Oropharynx + laryngopharynx are involved in propulsion which is contractions of the muscularis to propel food into the esophagus
Term
What is the esophagus used for? (What is peristalsis?)
Definition
Upper (laryngopharynx -> esophagus) and lower/cardiac (esophagus -> stomach) esophageal sphincter.

Peristalsis is a series of contractions and relaxations of muscularis to move food into the stomach
Term
What are the four areas of the stomach?
Definition
1)Cardia
2)Fundus-elevated area to the left of the cardia (used for temporary holding)
3) body -largest part of stomach, curved part of the stomach
4)Pylorus which is divided into 2 regions. The Pyloric antrum which is next to the body, and the pyloric canal which is nearer to the pyloric sphincter
Term
Rugae
Definition
allow the stomach to stretch
Term
What is the digestive function of the stomach?
Definition
secretion, mixing and propulsion of food as well as mechanical and chemical digestion
Term
What are the three areas of the small intestine?
Definition
1)Duodenum - short c-shape region
2) Jejunum - longest portion with thicker smooth muscle
3) ileum - last portion that ends with the ileocecal sphincter
Term
What are some features of the small intestine that increase surface area?
Definition
Plicae circularis (circular folds) and villi/microvilli
Term
What is the digestive function of the small intestine?
Definition
segmentation (mix and churn food) and propel food via peristalsis
Term
what is the large intestine also known as?
Definition
the colon
Term
what are the three regions of the large intestine?
Definition
1) the cecum which is short and extends inferiorly from the ileocecal sphincter
2) Colon - ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoidal
3) Rectum and anal canal - last segment that opens to the exterior through an opening called the anus
Term
appendix
Definition
lymphatic tissue that branches off the cecum
Term
internal sphincter
Definition
made of smooth muscle and is involuntary
(note: one of two sets of muscle sphincters at the anus)
Term
external sphincter
Definition
made of skeletal muscle and is voluntary
(note: one of two sets of muscle sphincters at the anus)
Term
Teniae coli
Definition
three longitudinal bands of smooth muscle that run along the length of the intestine
Term
Haustra
Definition
pouches formed from contractions of teniae coli
Term
epiploic (omental) appendages
Definition
fat-filled pouches that hang from the teniae coli
Term
What are the three different types of salivary glands?
Definition
Parotid (Which is the largest salivary gland in humans), submandibular, and sublingual.

All three have ducts that open into the oral cavity. Main parotid and submandibular ducts while there are several smaller lesser sublingual ducts
Term
What type of muscles attach the tongue to bone to hold it in position?
Definition
Extrinsic Muscles
Term
What type of muscle is the tongue composed of?
Definition
The tongue is composed of skeletal muscle called intrinsic muscle
Term
What attaches the tongue to the floor of the mouth?
Definition
The Lingual Frenulum
Term
What is another name for taste buds?
Definition
Papillae
Term
What are the three basic regions of a tooth?
Definition
1)Crown - part that can be seen above the gums
2)Neck - located in the region of the gum
3)Root - embedded in alveolar sockets of the maxilla or mandible; held in place by the peridontal ligament
Term
what covers most of the tooth and is hardened, calcified connective tissue?
Definition
Dentin
Term
What covers and protects the dentin of the crown?
Definition
Enamel
Term
What covers the root and attaches to the peridontal ligament?
Definition
Cementum
Term
What is gingiva?
Definition
the gums
Term
How many teeth do adults have?
Definition
32
Term
incisors, cuspids, premolars, molars
Definition
each jaw contains 4 ___ (cut food), 2 ___(tear food), ____ and ____ (crush and grind food)

note: premolars have two cusps while molars have four cusps
Term
deciduous, secondary
Definition
Children have _____ teeth (temporary) that are later replaced by _____ (permanent) teeth
Term
What are the three regions of the pancreas?
Definition
Head, body, and tail
Term
Pancreatic duct
Definition
runs from the tail to the head of the pancreas and joins with the common bile duct to form the hepatopancreatic ampulla
Term
Hepatopancreatic ampulla
Definition
opens into the duodenum (small intestine) at the major duodenal papilla
Term
Accessory pancreatic duct
Definition
smaller duct near the head of the pancreas branching off the pancreatic duct
Term
The liver has how many lobes?
Definition
The liver has two main lobes (right and left)

note: There are two smaller lobes that lie near the right lobe on the posterior side called the caudate(superior) and quadrate (inferior) lobes
Term
What separates the right and left lobe of the liver?
Definition
falciform ligament
Term
common hepatic duct, bile, gallbladder
Definition
the right and left hepatic ducts join to form the _______ which takes _____ to the _________
Term
cystic duct, common hepatic duct, common bile duct, pancreatic duct, hepatopancreatic ampulla
Definition
Bile leaves the gallbladder via the ___ to join the _____ to form the ____ which joins the ______ to form the _______
Term
Mechanical Digestion
Definition
Breaking good into smaller particles (No breaking of chemical bonds)

note: Mechanical digestion enhances the speed of chemical digestion
Term
Chemical Digestion
Definition
Involves digestive enzymes breaking the bonds of the food macromolecules (catabolism)
Term
Where does mechanical digestion begin? And where does it end?
Definition
Begins at the mouth and continues in the stomach and small intestine
Term
Mastication
Definition
breaks down large pieces of food into smaller pieces
Term
Peristalsis
Definition
waves of smooth muscle contraction to mechanically churn and mix food and aid in propulsion along the GI tract

note: this occurs in the stomach and small intestine
Term
Segmentation
Definition
smooth muscle contractions of back and forth movement to churn contents

note: occurs in small intestine
Term
What are macromolecules?
Definition
Macromolecules in food include carbohydrates, lipids and proteins
Term
catabolism, enzymes
Definition
prior to absorption, macromolecules must be broken down into smaller molecules (di- or mono-) through catabolism using digestive enzymes

this occurs in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine
Term
What breaks down starch in the mouth?
Definition
Starch (Which is carbohydrate macromolecule) is broken down by salivary amylase (starch -> smaller polysaccharides)
Term
What breaks down lipids in the mouth?
Definition
Lingual lipase (triglycerides -> glycerol + fatty acids)
Term
What breaks down proteins in the mouth?
Definition
No chemical digestion of proteins happens in the mouth
Term
What breaks down carbohydrates in the stomach?
Definition
There is no direct chemical digestion of carbohydrates happening in the stomach
Term
What breaks down lipids in the stomach?
Definition
Gastric lipase converts triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids
Term
What breaks down proteins in the stomach?
Definition
Pepsin breaks down proteins in the stomach

breaks down proteins -> smaller polypeptides
Term
What activates pepsinogen into Pepsin?
Definition
HCl which is secreted by parietal cells
Term
What synthesizes pepsinogen?
Definition
Chief cells (Indian chief holding a pepsi)
Term
What breaks down carbohydrates in the small intestine?
Definition
Pancreatic amylase breaks down smaller polysaccharides into disaccharides

Also, brush border enzymes break disaccharides into monosaccharides
Term
What breaks down lipids in the small intestine?
Definition
Pancreatic lipase breaks down triglycerides into glycerol + fatty acids
Term
What breaks down proteins in the small intestine?
Definition
Peptidases which breaks down polypeptides into tri and di peptides

Trypsin which also breaks down polypeptides into tri and di peptides

Brush Border Enzymes turn tri- and di- peptides into amino acids
Term
Salivary Amylase
Definition
Source: Salivary glands
Location of action: mouth
Substrate: starch/large polysaccharides
Product: smaller polysaccharides
Term
Pancreatic Amylase
Definition
Source: Pancreas
Location of Action: small intestine
Substrate: polysaccharides
Product: small polysacharides and tri/di - saccharides
Term
alpha-dextrinase
Definition
Source: small intestine
Location of action: Brush border of small intestine
Substrate: small polysaccharides and tri-saccharides
Product: disacchardies
Term
Sucrase/lactase/maltase
Definition
Source: small intestine
Location of action: brush border of small intestine
Substrate: disaccharides
product: monosaccharides
Term
Pepsin
Definition
Source: Chief cells in stomach (pepsinogen)
Location of action: stomach
Subsrate: protein/large polypeptides
Product: smaller polypeptides
Term
Trypsin/chymotrypsin
Definition
Source: pancreas
Location of action: small intestine
Substrate: polypeptides
Product: smaller polypeptides and tri-peptides
Term
aminopeptidase
Definition
Source: small intestine
Location of action: brush border of small intestine
Substrate:smaller polypeptides and tri-peptides
Product: Dipeptides and amino acids
Term
Dipeptidase
Definition
Source: Small intestine
Location of action: brush border of small intestine
Substrate: dipeptides
Product: amino acids
Term
Lingual Lipase
Definition
Source: Salivary Glands
Location of action: mouth
Substrate: triglycerides
Product: Glycerol and Free fatty acids
Term
Gastric Lipase
Definition
Source: Chief cells in stomach
Location of action: stomach
Substrate: triglycerides
Product: Glycerol and free fatty acids
Term
Pancreatic Lipase
Definition
Source: Pancreas
Location of action: small intestine
Substrate: triglycerides
Product: Glycerol and free fatty acids
Term
What are absorbed directly across the small intestine into the blood stream?
Definition
Amino Acids and monosaccharides
Term
Fatty acids
Definition
______however cannot be directly absorbed into the blood (hydrophobic nature)

they are instead packaged into chlyomicrons and travel through lymphatic vessels to be transported into the blood at the left subclavian vein where it can be taken to cells in need via lipoproteins
Term
Is Bile a digestive enzyme?
Definition
No, bile is not a digestive enzyme
Term
Bile salts
Definition
aid in digestion by physically breaking up large aggregates of lipids into smaller aggregates. This increases the surface area exposed for chemical digestion
Term
Crohn's Disease
Definition
A type of autoimmune inflammatory bowl disease, which many affect any part of the GI tract but generally targets three main areas: 1) ileum, 2) ileocolic (both ileum and colon), and 3) Colon. It causes a wide variety of symptoms which vary depending on depth of tissue involvement. Some common symptoms include: abdominal pain and diarrhea, frequent bowel movements, ulcers, fistula, and fever.

There are a combination of genetic and environmental factors that can contribute to Crohn's disease. Environmental factors include: increased intake of animal proteins, milk proteins, and omega 6&3 fatty acids. Smoking increases risk of disease flare ups and emotional stress also contributes to it.

Diagnosis is a challenging process because it requires a number of different tests such as endoscopy,radiologic tests (MRI and CT scans), and Blood tests (Specific antibodies)

There is currently no cure for Crohn's disease. Changes in lifestyle, medication, and surgery relieve some of the symptoms.
Term
BMR
Definition
Basal Metabolic Rate - energy your body requires to sustain its vital functions under resting conditions
Term
Daily caloric expenditure/need
Definition
BMR x physical activity level


sedentary - BMR x 1.2
lightly active - BMR x 1.375
moderately active - BMR x 1.55
Very active - BMR x 1.725
Extra active - BMR x 1.9
Supporting users have an ad free experience!