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Neurology
Anatomy and Physiology
264
Anatomy
Graduate
01/17/2014

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Term
CNS/PNS neuroectoderm origin
Definition
CNS neurons, ependymal cells, oligodendroglia, astrocytes
Term
CNS/PNS neural crest origin
Definition
schwann cells, PNS neurons
Term
CNS/PNS mesoderm origins
Definition
microglia
Term
wallerian degeneration
Definition
axon injury --> neuron degeneration distally, axonal reaction proximally
Term
repair K metabolism
Definition
astrocytes
Term
reactive gliosis
Definition
astrocytes
Term
CNS phagocytes
Definition
microglia
Term
respond to tissue damage by differentiating into large phagocytic cells
Definition
microglia
Term
fuse when HIV-infected to become multinucleate cells
Definition
microglia
Term
myelin in CNS
Definition
oligodendrocytes
Term
myelin in PNS
Definition
schwann cells
Term
destroyed in MS
Definition
oligodendrocytes
Term
look like fried eggs
Definition
oligodendroglia
Term
destroyed in Guillan-barre
Definition
schwann cells
Term
acoustin neuroma
Definition
type of schwannoma typically on CN VIII
Term
promote axonal regeneration
Definition
schwann cells
Term
synthesis in locus ceruleus
Definition
NE
Term
increased in anxiety and mania
Definition
NE
Term
increased in schizophrenia and depression
Definition
DA
Term
synthesis in reticular formation
Definition
NE
Term
synthesis in solitary tract
Definition
NE
Term
decreased parkinsons
Definition
DA
Term
synthesis in ventral tegmentum
Definition
DA
Term
synthesis in SNc
Definition
DA
Term
synthesis in raphe nucleus
Definition
serotonin
Term
decreased in anxiety and depression
Definition
serotonin
Term
decreased in alzheimer's and huntington's
Definition
Ach
Term
increases REM sleep
Definition
Ach
Term
synthesis in basal nucleus of meynert
Definition
Ach
Term
synthesis in nucleus accumbens
Definition
GABA
Term
need vitamin B6 for synthesis
Definition
GABA
Term
decreased in anxiety and huntingtons
Definition
GABA
Term
mesocortical pathway
Definition
ventral segmental area -> cortex
Term
symptoms if block mesocortical
Definition
negative symptoms
Term
mesolimbic pathway
Definition
ventral tegmental -> limbic
Term
symptoms if block mesolimbic
Definition
relief of psychosis
Term
nigrostriatal pathway
Definition
Snc -> striatum (caudate and putamen)
Term
symptoms if block nigrostriatal
Definition
parkinsons
Term
tuberoinfundibular pathway
Definition
arcuate nucleus -> pituitary
Term
symptoms if block tuberoinfundibular
Definition
increased prolactin -> hypogonadism
Term
3 structures of BBB
Definition
capillary endothelium, basement membrane, astrocyte processes
Term
lipid/water soluble can pass BBB rapidly?
Definition
lipid soluble
Term
area postrema
Definition
vomiting center
Term
OVLT
Definition
osmotic sensing
Term
vasogenic edema
Definition
infarction and/or neoplasm destroyed endothelial cell tight junctions
Term
supraoptic nucleus
- fxn
- destruction
Definition
- ADH secretion
- diabetes insipidus
Term
paraventricular nucleus
Definition
secretes oxytocin
Term
hunger
Definition
lateral
Term
destruction eads to anorexia, failure to thrive
Definition
lateral
Term
mediates satiety
Definition
ventromedial area
Term
destruction leads to hyperphagia
Definition
ventromedial
Term
mediates parasympathetic
Definition
anterior/preoptic
Term
mediates sympathetic
Definition
posterior
Term
secretes GnRH
Definition
anterior/preoptic
Term
mediates circadian rhythm
Definition
suprachiasmatic nucleus
Term
effects the anterior pituitary
Definition
arcuate nucleus
Term
destruction results in hyperthermia
Definition
anterior/preoptic
Term
receives input from retina
Definition
suprachiasmatic
Term
savage behavior and obesity from stimulation
Definition
dorsal-medial
Term
responsible for sweating and cutaneous vasodilation in hot temp
Definition
ant/preoptic
Term
responsible for shivering and decreased cutaneous blood frlow
Definition
posterior and lateral
Term
superior colliculi
Definition
vertical gaze
Term
inferior colliculi
Definition
auditory
Term
parinaud syndrome
Definition
paralysis of conjugate vertical gaze due to lesion of superior colliculi
Term
smell
Definition
CN 1
Term
sight
Definition
CN II
Term
Pupillary constriction
Definition
occulomotor
Term
accomodation
Definition
occulomotor
Term
eyelid opening
Definition
CN III
Term
superior oblique
Definition
trochlear
Term
mastication
Definition
trigeminal
Term
facial sensation
Definition
trigeminal
Term
lateral rectus
Definition
abducens
Term
facial movement
Definition
CN VII
Term
taste anterior 2/3 of tongue
Definition
CN VII
Term
lacrimation
Definition
CN VII
Term
eyelid closing
Definition
CN VII
Term
stapedius mm
Definition
CN VII
Term
hearing and balance
Definition
CN VIII
Term
taste post 1/3
Definition
CN IX
Term
swallowing
Definition
CN IX
Term
salivation of parotid
Definition
CN IX
Term
monitoring chemo and baro receptors
Definition
CN IX
Term
palate elevation
Definition
CN X
Term
thoracoabdomianl viscera
Definition
CN X
Term
aortic arch chemo and baro receptors
Definition
CN X
Term
taste from epiglottic regions
Definition
CN X
Term
head turning
Definition
CN XI
Term
shoulder shrug
Definition
CH XI
Term
tongue movement
Definition
CN XII
Term
CN nuclei in midbrain
Definition
CN III and IV
Term
Cn nuclei in pons
Definition
CN V, VI, VII, VIII
Term
CN nuclei in medulla
Definition
CN IX, X, XI, and XII
Term
corneal reflex
Definition
afferent = V1
efferent = VII
Term
lacrimation reflex
Definition
afferent = V1
efferent = VII
Term
jaw jerk
Definition
afferent = V3
efferent = V3
Term
pupillary reflex
Definition
afferent = II
efferent = III
Term
gag reflex pathway
Definition
afferent = IX
efferent = IX and X
Term
nuclei for visceral sensory
Definition
nucleus solitarious
Term
nucleus solitarius nerves
Definition
VII, IX and X
Term
nucleus ambiguus nerves
Definition
IX, X and XI
Term
nuclie for motor innervation of pharynx, larynx and upper esophagus
Definition
nucleus ambiguus
Term
nuclei for autonomic to heart lungs ad upper GI
Definition
dorsal motor nucleus
Term
doral motor nucleus nerves
Definition
IX, X and XI
Term
nerves through cavernous sinus
Definition
III, IV, V1, V2 and VI
Term
LMN CN XII lesion
Definition
tongue toward side of lesion
Term
CN V lesion
Definition
jaw toward lesion
Term
CN X lesion
Definition
uvula away from lesion
Term
CN XI lesion
Definition
weakness to turn head to contalateral side of lesion
Term
muscles to open mouth
Definition
lateral pterygoid
Term
muscles to close mouth
Definition
masseter, temporalis and medial pterygoid
Term
eye down and out, ptosis, los of accomodation
Definition
CN III lesion
Term
vertical diplopia (eye drifts up)
Definition
CN IV damage
Term
medial directed eye
Definition
CN VI damage
Term
horner syndrome
Definition
ptosis, miosis and anhidrosis
Term
associations with horner
Definition
pancoast tumor, brown squared, late stage syringomyelia
Term
VPL:
- input
- info
- destination
Definition
- spinothalamic and DCML
- pain and tem; pressure, temp, vin and prop
- 1' somatosensory
Term
VPM:
- input
- info
- destination
Definition
- trigeminal and gustatory
- face sensation and taste
- 1' somatosensory
Term
LGN:
- input
- info
- destination
Definition
- CN II
- vision
- calcarine sulus
Term
MGN:
- input
- info
- destination
Definition
- superior olive and inf colliculus
- hearing
- auditory cortex of temp lobe
Term
middel cerebellar peduncle
Definition
contralat cortical input
Term
inferior cerebellar peduncle
Definition
ispilateral proprioceptive information
Term
input nerves of cerebellum
Definition
climbing and mossy
Term
output nerves to cerebellum
Definition
purkinje
Term
superior cerebellar peduncle
Definition
output
Term
deep nuclei of cerebellum
Definition
dentate, emboliform, globose, fastigial
Term
lalteral cerebellar nuclei fxn
Definition
voluntary movement of extremities
Term
medial movement of cerebellum
Definition
balance, truncal coordination, ataxia
Term
basal ganglia fxn
Definition
voluntary movements and making postural adjustments; receives cortical input , provides neg feedback to cortex to modulate movement
Term
what makes up the striatum?
Definition
putamen and caudate
Term
excitatory pathway of basal ganglia
Definition
cortical inputs stimulate striatum, stimulating release of Ach, which disinhibits the thalamus via the GPi/SNr
Term
inhibitory pathway of basal ganglia
Definition
cortical inputs stimulate striatum which disinhibits STN via GPe and STN stimulates GPi to inhibit the thalamus
Term
D1 vs D2 in basal ganglia
Definition
D1 = stimulatory
D2 = inhibitory
Term
D1 vs D2 in basal ganglia
Definition
D1 = stimulatory
D2 = inhibitory
Term
lew body composition
Definition
alpha-synuclein
Term
parkinsons defect
Definition
loss of dopaminergic neurons in substantial nigra pars compacta
Term
parkinsons symtpoms
Definition
tremor, cogwheel rigidity, akinesia and postural instability
Term
wild flailing of 1 arm
Definition
hemiballismus from sub thalamic nucleus lesion
Term
defect in huntingons
Definition
CAG repeat, atrophy of caudate; neuronal death via NMDA-R binding and glutamate toxicity
Term
huntington's symptoms
Definition
chorea, aggression, depression and dementia
Term
sudden, jerky purposeless movements
Definition
chorea
Term
slow, writhing movements especially of fingers
Definition
athetosis
Term
sudden, brief muscle contraction
Definition
myoclonus
Term
sustained, involuntary muscle contractions
Definition
dystonia
Term
essential/postural tremor
Definition
action tremor (worsens when holding posture), autosomal domonane; self medicate with alcohol
Term
resting tremor
Definition
seen in parkinson's; most noticeable distally
Term
intention tremor
Definition
slow, zigzag motion when pointing toward a target; with cerebellar dysfunction
Term
homonculus
Definition
topographical representation of sensory and motor areas in cerebral cortex; used to localize lesions
Term
kluver budy syndrome
Definition
hyperorality, hypersexuality, disinhibited behavior with amygdala lesion
Term
frontal lobe lesion symptoms
Definition
disinhibition, deficits in concentration, orientation and judgement; reemergence of primitive reflexes
Term
R parietal lobe lesion
Definition
spatial neglect syndrome (agnosia)
Term
L parietal lobe lesion
Definition
agraphia, acalculia, finger agnosia, L and R disorientation
Term
Reticular activating system defect
Definition
reduced levels of arousal and wakefulness
Term
mammillary bodies lesion
Definition
wernicke= confusion, ophthalmoplegia, ataxia
korsakoff = memory loss, confabulation, personality changes
Term
basal ganglia lesion
Definition
may result in tremor at rest, chorea or athetosis
Term
cerebellar hemisphere lesion
Definition
intension tremor, limb ataxia; ipsilateral defts; fall toward side of lesion
Term
cerebellar vermis lesion
Definition
truncal ataxia, dysarthria
Term
subthalamic nucleus lesion
Definition
contra hemiballismus
Term
hippocampus lesion
Definition
anterograde amneia (can't make new memories)
Term
Paramedian pontine erticular formation lesion
Definition
eyes look away from side of lesion
Term
frontal eye fields lesion
Definition
eyes look toward lesion
Term
superior colliculi lesion
Definition
paralysis of upward gaze
Term
central pontine myelinolysis
- symptoms
- cause
Definition
- acute paralysis, dysarhria, dysphagia, diplopia and loss of consciousness
- very rapid correction of hyponatremia
Term
broca's area lesion
Definition
nonfluent aphasia with intact comprehension; inf frontal gyrus
Term
wernicke's area lesion
Definition
fluent aphasia with impaired comprehension; superior temporal gyrus
Term
global aphasia
Definition
confluent with impaired comprehension; both broca's and wernicke's affected
Term
conduction aphasia
Definition
poor repitiaion; arcuae fascicles lesion
Term
anterior cerebral artery supply
Definition
anteriomedial surface
Term
middle cerebral artery supply
Definition
lateral surface
Term
posterior cerebral artery supply
Definition
posterior and inferior surfaces
Term
watershed zones
- locations
- when damaged
Definition
- between ACA/MA, PCA/MCA
- severe hypotension -> upper leg/upper arm weakness, defects in higher-order visual processing
Term
fxn of therapeutic hyperventilaiton
Definition
helps dec ICP in cases of acute cerebral edema
Term
MCA stroke
- location
- symptoms
Definition
- motor cortex (upper limb and face), sensory cortex (upper limb and face), wernicke's and broca
- contralat paralysis of upper face and limbs, contra sensation upper limb and face, hemineglect if on L side
Term
ACA stroke
- location
- symptoms
Definition
- lower limb motor and sensory
- contra lower limb paralysis and loss of sensation
Term
lateral striate artery stroke
- location
- symptoms
Definition
- striatum, internal capsule
- contra hemiparesis/hemiplegia
Term
ASA stroke
- location
- symptoms
Definition
- lateral corticospinal, medial lemniscus, caudal medulla (CNXII)
- contra lower limb hemiparesis, dec control prop, ipso hypoglossal dysfxn
Term
PICA stroke
- location
- symptoms
Definition
lateral medulla (vestib, lat spinothal, spinal trigem, nucleus ambig, symp); inf cerebellar pedunc
- vomiting, vertigo, nystagmus, limb/face (de pain, temp and sense) dysphagia hoarseness, gag, ipso horner's ataxia dysmetria
Term
AICA stroke
- location
- symptoms
Definition
- lateral pons (vestib nuclei, facial nucleus, spinal trigem, cochlear nuc, smp fibers), middle and inf cerebellar peduncles
- vomiting, vertigo,nystagmus; paralysis of face, dec lac, dec ace ant 2/3, dec corneal reflex; ipso hornet's; dec pain and temp to face; ipsi dec hearing
Term
lateral pontine syndrome
Definition
AICA
Term
lateral medullary syndrome
Definition
PICA
Term
PCA
- location
- symptoms
Definition
- occipital cortex, visual cortex
- conra hemianopsia with macular sparing
Term
AComm
- symptoms
Definition
- visual field defects
Term
PComm
- symptoms
Definition
CN III palsy= eye down and out
Term
most common site of berry aneurysm
Definition
anterir communicating
Term
associations with berry aneurysm
Definition
ADPKD, ehlers-danlos, marfan's, age, HTN, smoking, race
Term
charcot-bouchard microaneurysms
Definition
chronic hypertension; affects small vessels
Term
epidural hematoma
- artery
- symptoms
- CT
Definition
- middle meningeal
- lucid interval with CN III palsy
- lense shaped
Term
subdural hematoma
- vessel
- associations
- CT
Definition
- bridging veins
- elderly, alcoholics, trauma, shaken baby
- crescent shape, midline shift
Term
subarachnoid hemorrhage
- vessel
- associations
- symptoms
- CT
- tx
Definition
- ruptured berry aneurysm
- marfan, ehlers-danlos, AVM
- worst HA of life; 2-3 days after see xanthochromic spinal tap
- not visible
- nimodipine
Term
intraparenchymal hemorrhage
- cause
- location
Definition
- HTN, amyloid angiopathy, vasculitis and neoplasm
- basal ganglia and internal capsule
Term
what you see on irreversible neuronal injury
Definition
red neurons, necrosis + Nt, macrophages, reactive gliosis + vascular proliferation
Term
hemorrhagic stroke
Definition
intracerebral bleeding 2/2 HTN, anticoagulation and cancer; 2/2 ischemic stroke following repercussion
Term
ischemic stroke
Definition
emboli; Afib, carotid dissection, patet foramen ovale, endocarditis; tx: tPA
Term
TIA
Definition
brief, reversible episode of neurologic dysfunction lasting fewer than 24 hrs
Term
normal pressure hydrocephalus
Definition
wet (urinary incontinence), wobbly (ataxia) and wacky (dementia) 2/2 expansion of ventricle distorts the fibers of corona radiata
Term
communicating hydrocephalus
Definition
dec CSF absorption by arachnoid villi -> inc ICP, papilledema and herniation
Term
obstructive hydrocephalus
Definition
blockage of CSF circulation within the ventricular system
Term
hydrocephalus ex vacuou
Definition
appearance of inc cSF in atrophy (alzheimers)
Term
function and location of fascicles cuneatus vs gracilis
Definition
cuneatus = upper body; lateral
gracilis = lower body, medial
Term
dorsal column- medial lemniscal pathway
- 1st order
- synapse 1
- 2nd order
- synapse 2
- 3rd order
Definition
- dorsal root gang -> ascends ipsi in dorsal column
- ipsi cuneatus or gracilis
- decussates in medulla and ascends contra in med lemniscus
- VPL
- sensory cortex
Term
spinothalamic tract
- 1st order
- synapse 1
- 2nd order
- synapse 2
- 3rd order
Definition
- a-delta or C fiers in dorsal root to s.c.
- ipsi gray matter
- decussates at anterior white commissure
- VPL
- sensory cortex
Term
lateral corticospinal
- 1st order
- synapse 1
- 2nd order
- synapse 2
- 3rd order
Definition
- upper motor descends and decussates at medullary pyramids
- anterior horn
- LMH leaves spinal cord
- neuromuscular junction
Term
UMN lesion signs
Definition
weakness, hyperreflexia, inc tone, babinski, spastic paralysis, clasp knife spasticity
Term
LMN lesions
Definition
weakness, atrohy, fasiculations, hyporeflexia, dec tone, flaccid paralysis
Term
dorsal column- medial lemniscal informaiton
Definition
pressure, vibration, touch and proprioception
Term
spinothalamic informaion
Definition
pain and temp
Term
lateral corticospinal tract info
Definition
descending voluntary movement of contralateral limbs
Term
anterior horn diseases
Definition
polio, wednig-hoffman, ALS
Term
multiple sclerosis spinal cord lesion
Definition
white matter, random asymmetric
Term
ALS spinal cord lesions
Definition
ant horn and lateral corticospinal tract
Term
anterior spinal artery spinal cord lesion
Definition
spares dorsal columns and tract of Lissauer
Term
artery of Adamkiewicz
Definition
supplies anterior spinal artery around T8
Term
tabes dorsalis spinal cord lesion
Definition
degeneration of dorsal roots and dorsal columns
Term
syringomyelia spinal cord lesion
Definition
anterior white commissure of spinothalamic tract -> BL loss of pain and temp
Term
demyelination of dorsal columns and lateral corticospona, and siocerebellar
Definition
Vit B12, Vit E deficiency and Fridreich's ataxia
Term
polio symptoms
Definition
malaise, HA, fever, nausea, abdominal pain, sore throat, LMN lesions
Term
CSF findings in polio
Definition
CSF with lymphocytic pleocytosis with slight elevation of rote in
Term
werdnig-horrman disease symptoms
Definition
floppy babye; tongue fasciculaitons, seat around 7 months; degen of nat horn
Term
defect in ALS
Definition
superoxide dismutase 1
Term
tx of ALS
Definition
riluzole decreases presynpatic glutamate release
Term
tabes dorsalis
- symptoms
- tx
Definition
- impaired proprioception and locomotor ataxia
- riluzole
Term
friedreich's ataxia
- defect
- symptoms
Definition
- GAA that encodes trataxin, impaired mito functioning
- staggering gait, pes cavus, hammer toes, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, kyphoscoliosis
Term
findings in brown-sequard
Definition
below lesion = ipsi UMN, ipsi dorsal column,contra pain and temp,
at level = ipsi sensation, LMN signs
Term
reflexes:
- biceps
- triceps
- patella
- achilles
- babinski
Definition
- C5
- C7
- L4
- S1
- dorsiflexion of big toe and fanning of other toes; UMN lesion
Term
primitive relfexes
- moro
- rooting
- suckling
- palmar and plantar
- gallant
Definition
- extend limbs when startled and then draw together
- move head toward check stroked
- suckling when roof of mouth touched
- curling of fingers if hands stroked
- stroking on one side of spine while newborn in ventral suspension causes lateral flexion of lower body toward stimulated side
Term
conductive hearing loss vs sensorineural
Definition
- conductive = abnormal Rinne (bone > air), weber to affected ear
- sensorineural = rinne normal (A>B), weber to unaffected ear
Term
MLF syndrome
Definition
lesion of medial longitudinal fascicles -> medial rectus palsy on lateral gaze and nystagmus in abducting eye; in MS
Term
CN XII lesion
Definition
tongue deviates toward side of lesion
Term
CN V lesion
Definition
jaw deviates toward side of lesion
Term
CN X lesion
Definition
uvula deviates away from side of lesion
Term
CN XI lesion
Definition
weakness turning head to contralateral side
Term
facial lesion UMN vs LMN
Definition
- UMN = contralateral lower face only
- LMN = ipsilateral upper and lower
Term
bell's palsy
- symptoms
- causes
Definition
- destruction of facial nucleus or branch ail efferent fibers; peripheral ipsi facial paralysis with inability to close eye
- lyme, herpes, AIDS, sarcoid, tumor, diabetes
Term
free nerve endings
- fibers
- location
- senses
Definition
- C = slow, unmyelinated; A-delta = fast, myelinated
- all skin, epidermis, some viscera
- pain and temp
Term
meissner's
- fibers
- location
- senses
Definition
- large myelinated
- hairless skin
- position, dynamic fine ought, adapt quickly
Term
pacinian
- fibers
- location
- senses
Definition
- large myelinated
- deep skin layers, ligaments, joints
- vibration and pressure
Term
merkel's
- fibers
- location
- senses
Definition
- large myelinated
- hair follicles
- position sense, static touch, adapt slowly
Term
peripheral nerve structure
Definition
endoneurium = invests single nerve fiber layers; perineurium = surrounds fascicle of nerve fibers; epineurium = dense CT that surrounds entire nerve
Term
retinitis
Definition
retinal necrosis + edema -> atrophic scare
Term
iritis
Definition
systemic inflammation; e.g. Reiter's
Term
near vision
Definition
ciliary mm contracts -> more convex
Term
distant vision
Definition
ciliary mm relaxes -> lens flattens
Term
eye changes in aging
Definition
sclerosis and dec elasticity -> presybyopia
Term
presbyopia
Definition
no near vision
Term
retinal artery occlsion
Definition
acute, painless monocular loss of vision; pale retina and cherry-red macula
Term
open/wide angle glaucoma
Definition
obstructed outflow; with myopia, inc age, AA; silent
Term
closed/narrow angle
Definition
very painful, dec vision, rock hard eye, frontal HA
Term
risk factors for cataracts
Definition
age, smoking, EtOH, sunlight, classic galactosemia, galactokinase deficiency, DM, trauma, infection
Term
papilledema
Definition
inc iCP -> elevated optic disk with blurred margins, bigger blind spots
Term
pupillary control: constriction
Definition
pupillary sphincter; parasymp. CN III from edinger westphal nucleus -> ciliary ganglion
Term
pupillary control: dilation
Definition
radial mm, symp; T1 symp -> sup cervical ganglion -> postgangl symp -> long ciliary
Term
pupillary light reflex
Definition
CN II -> pretectal nuclei -> activate bilateral Edinger-Westphal nuclei -> occulomotor nerve -> pupillary constrictor
Term
marcus gunn pupil
Definition
afferent pupillary defect = dec BL pupillary constriction when light is shone in affected eye
Term
CN III cross section
Definition
inside = output; ptosis, down nd out gaze, nonreactive pupils
outside = parasympathetic, affected 1st by compression, blown pupil
Term
retinal detatchment
Definition
separation of neurosensory layer of retina from pigment epithelium -> degeneration of photoreceptors -> vision loss; 2/2 trauma or DM
Term
dry vs wet ARMD
Definition
-degeneration of macula and loss of central vision;
- dry - atrophic, slow, due to fat deposits; tx: smoking cessation and antioxidants
wet = rapid, due to neovascularization
Term
visual field defect: right anopia
Definition
right optic nerve
Term
visual field defect: bitemporal hemianopia
Definition
optic chiasm
Term
visual field defect: left homonymous hemianopia
Definition
optic tract
Term
visual field defect: left upper quadrant anopia
Definition
R mayer's loop (temporal lobe); MCA
Term
visual field defect: left lower quadratic anopia
Definition
R dorsal optic radiation (parietal lobe); MCA
Term
visual field defect: left hemianopia with macular sparing
Definition
PCA; visual cortex
Term
visual field defect: central scotoma
Definition
macular degeneration
Term
causes of optic chiasm lesion
Definition
pituitary adenoma, craniopharyngeoma, aneruysm at anterior communicating
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