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Kinesiology
Final Lecture Exam
289
Anatomy
Undergraduate 1
11/19/2012

Additional Anatomy Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
The Respiratory systom consists of?
Definition
Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs
Term
List the structures that air passes through from bronchi to alveoli.
Definition
Primary Bronchi, Secondary Bronchi, Tertiary Bronchi, Terminal and Respiratory Bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli.
Term
With Branching in that bronchi, supportive cartilage is gradually replaced with what?
Definition
smooth muscle
Term
Contraction and relaxation of what around the bronchioles has major effect on air resistance?
Definition
smooth muscle
Term
Volume of conducting airways =
Definition
anatomic dead space(VsubD)
Term
Describe the structure of an alveoli.
Definition
small, thin walled sacs that have capillary beds in their walls.
Term
What is the purpose of alveoli?
Definition
Site of gas molecules (O2 & CO2) exchange between air and blood
Term
What are respiratory membranes?
Definition
alveolar-capillary membranes
Term
What is contained inside the lungs?
Definition
conducting airways, alveoli, blood vessels, elastic tissue.
Term
Molecules move from areas of ________ pressure or concentraition to areas of ________ pressure or concentration.
Definition
High, Low
Term
Boyle's Law-
Definition
the pressure of gas is inversly proportional to its volume
Term
THe movement of air into and out of the lungs is due to what?
Definition
Pressure difference between the pulmonary air and the atmosphere.
Term
Explain the active process of inspiration.
Definition
Diaphragm descends and external intercostal muscles contract thus increasing the volume of the thorasic cavity. Decreased pressure in thorasic cavity causes a 1-2 mm Hg drop in intra-alveolar pressure at rest compared to outside atmospheric pressure. Air molecules move through the respiratory tubes into the lungs from the atmosphere following the pressure gradient.
Term
Why is expiration considered a passive process?
Definition
When you exhale your diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax decreasing the volume in the thoracic cavity. This increases pressure and pushes air out.
Term

What is air saturated with when it is inhaled?

What temperature is it warmed to?

Definition
water vapour, 37°C
Term
What is Compliance?
Definition
the amount of volume change in the lung for a given change in alveolar pressure.
Term
What is minute ventilation?
Definition
the volume of gas either inspired or expired (but not both) per minute at rest or during any stated activity. It is the tidal volume × the number of breaths per minute.
Term
What is Tidal Volume?
Definition
It is the volume of gas inspired or expired with each breath at rest or during any stated activity.
Term
What is normal breathing Frequency?
Definition
12-16 breaths per minute
Term
What is expiratory reserve volume?
Definition
It is the maximum volume that can be exhaled from the resting end-expiratory position. The vital capacity is the sum of the inspiratory capacity and the expiratory reserve volume.
Term
What is Inspiratory capacity?
Definition
The maximal volume of gas that can be inspired from the resting end-expiratory position.
Term
What is total lung capacity?
Definition
The volume of gas in the lungs at the time of maximal inspiration; it is composed of the sum of vital capacity(inspiratory capacity + expiratory reserve volume) and the residual volume.
Term
What is alveolar ventilation?
Definition

The volume of air that reaches the alveoli per minute.

VA= (VT × FR) - (VD ×FR)

Term
Why do volumes and capacities decrease when lying down?
Definition
  1. Abdominal contents push up against diaphragm.
  2. There is an increase in intrapulmonary blood volume in the horizontal position.
Term
Pumonary function tests are usually based on ?
Definition
sex, age, height
Term
Problems with pulmonary function norms?
Definition
  1. Don't consider the chest size of the individual.
  2. Would be better to use sitting height rather then standing height.
Term
What two catagories make up pulmonary dysfunctions?
Definition
Obstruction Disorders, Restrictive disorders
Term
What is an obstructive disorder?
Definition
blockage or narrowing of the airways causing increased airway resistance - asthma, bronchitis, emphysema
Term
What can bronchiolar obstructions result from?
Definition
inflammation and edema, smooth muscle contraction, or bronchiolar secretion.
Term
What is a Restrictive disorder?
Definition

no problem with the airways but there is damage to the lung tissue - loss of elasticity and compliance - limited expansion of the lung - pulmonary fibrosis, pneumonia.

Lung tissue becomes stiff and unable to expand very far.

Term
Ventilation threshold is
Definition
the point at which minute ventilation increases disproportionatly with oxygen consumption during graded exercise.
Term
What is Lactate threshold?
Definition
The point at which lactic acid begins to accumulate in the blood.
Term
What three components make up the Circulatory System?
Definition
Heart, Blood vessels, and blood
Term
What is the purpose of the circulatory system?
Definition
Transport essential materials (oxygen, fuel molecules, hormones, etc.) throughout the body to cells where they are needed and to collect waste material (carbon dioxide, lactic acid, urea, etc.) generated by the bodies metabolic activity.
Term
What are the two sections of the Circulatory System?
Definition
Pulmonary circuit, Systemic circuit
Term
What makes up the Pulmonary curcuit?
Definition
blood vessels going to and from the lungs
Term
What makes up the Systemic curcuit?
Definition
Blood vessels going to and from the rest of tissues in the body
Term
Name the four chambers of the heart.
Definition
right and left atrium, leaft and right ventricles
Term
What divides the left and right sides of the heart?
Definition
Septum
Term
Why is the wall of the left ventricle thicker then the wall of the right ventricle?
Definition
The pressure for systemic circulation is much greater then the pressure for pulmonary circulation
Term
What causes a heart murmer?
Definition
a damaged valve, or one that does not close properly. Blood regurgitates causing a noise.
Term
what is the name of the heart muscle? what type of muscle is it?
Definition
myocardium, cardiac muscle
Term
What is one trait that cardiac muscle posses that skeletal muscles do not?
Definition
All of the cardiac muscles are interconnected. When one fiber contracts, all fibers contract.
Term
What characterrisic allows for atrium and ventricles to contract indepandably?
Definition
The muscles of the atrium and the ventricles are seperate.
Term
Where is the SA node located?
Definition
Posterior wall of the right atrium
Term
Explain the path and result of electrical impulses in the heart.
Definition
SA node triggers atrial muscle fibers to contract. SA sends signal to AV node. AV node to AV bundle. AV bundle to left and right bundle branches. Branches to Purkinje fibers. Purkinje fibers travel throught the ventricle myocardium. This stimulates the contraction of the ventricles
Term
What is an electrocardiography?
Definition
records the wave of depolarization as it passes across the heart using electrodes on the surface of the body.
Term
What are the components of a normal EKG waveform?
Definition
pqrst waves
Term
What does the P wave repersent?
Definition
atrial depolarizations
Term
What does qrs wave stand for?
Definition
Ventricular depolarization
Term
what does the T wave represent?
Definition
Ventricular repolarization
Term
What is an arrhythmia?
Definition
an irregularity in the rhythm of the heartbeat
Term
What are some examples of an arrhythmia?
Definition

a) atrial - tachycardia

b) nodal - second and third degree heart blocks

c) ventricular - premature ventricular contraction (PVC), ventricular tachycardia, ventricular fibrillation

Term
Which two vessels supply blood to the heart?
Definition
Left and right coronary arteries
Term
What are the three mechanisms involved in returning blood to the heart?
Definition

a) pressure difference between left ventricle and right atrium

b) skeletal muscle pump                                           

c) Respiratory pump- during inspiration                     

Term
What is blood composed of?
Definition
red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets suspended in a liquid plasma
Term
What is another name for red blood cells?
Definition
erythrocytes
Term
What is hematocrit?
Definition
the ratio of the volume of blood cells to the total volume of blood
Term
What is hemoglobin?
Definition
An iron containing protein on RBC which reversibly binds with oxygen
Term
What are the two sites of gas exchange in the body?
Definition

1. Alveolar-capillary

2. Tissue-capillary  

Term
What is partial pressure of a gas?
Definition
The pressure of a single gas in a gas mixture
Term
What is the Bohr Effect?
Definition
increased body temperature, increased PCO2, and decreased pH shift the oxyhemoglobin Dissociation Curve to the right and release more oxygen at the tissue level for a given PO2
Term
What is cardiac output?
Definition
The amount of blood pumped by either the left or right ventricle of the heart per minute
Term
What is systole?
Definition
The contraction phase of the cardiac cycle
Term
What is diastole?
Definition
the resting phase of the cardiac cycle
Term
what is the Fick equation?
Definition

VO2 = HR × SV × (a-VO2)diff

 

HR = heart rate

SV= stroke volume

(a-VO2)diff= arterial-venous oxygen difference

Term
What is Poiseuille's Law?
Definition
Resistance to flow = (Fluid viscosity times Tube length)/ (Radius of tube)4
Term
What are the most important factors that determine V02 max?
Definition

1. The ability to ventilate the lungs and oxygenate the blood passing through the lungs.

2. the ability of the heart to pump the blood

4. the ability of the working muscles to accept a large blood supply

5. the ability of muscles to extract oxygen from the capillary blood and use it to produce energy

Term
What are the VO2 test portocols?
Definition

1. THe test should exceed 6 mins but less then 15 mins

2. incorporate a warm up period in the first stage of the test

3. the test protocol should be arranged in stages, with each stage progressively increasing in intensity untill the termination criteria is reached.

Term
What are the criteria for attainment of VO2max?
Definition

1. The oxygen consumption ceases to increase linearly with increasing work rate and approaches a plateau

2. Heart rate should be close to age predicted max (220-age)

3. Blood lactate levels should be * millimoles/liter or greater, 3-5 minutes post exercise.

4. Respiratory exchange ratio (VCO2/VO2) should be greater then 1.10

5. Subject should look exhausted

Term
What are some advantages to bicycle ergometers compared to treadmills for exercise testing?
Definition

1. Less expensive

2. portable

3. Dont require electricity

4. patient is more stable 9 easier to collect data, eg. HR BP)

5. Easier to quantify work rate

Term
WHat are some disadvantages to bicycle ergometers?
Definition

1. Cant abtain as high a VO2 max.

2. Cycling is not as a common movemnt for most individuals as compared to walking

Term
Why use a predictive test?
Definition

1. Less expensive

2. Tests can be submaximal - saftey

3. Some tests can be administered to large groups

4. less motivation is required from the individual (subject)

Term
Predictions based on heart rate during exercise are based on what assumptions?
Definition

1. Linear relation between heart rate and oxygen uptake

2. Similar maximum heart rate for all subjects

3. In cases where vo2 is predicted from work rate, machanical efficiency is assumed

4. Day to day variations in heart rate

 

Term
%efficiency of muscular work=
Definition
  (  (work performed (kcal))/ (Energy expended (kcal))   ) × 100
Term
What are the 2 divisions of the nervous system?
Definition
Central nervous system, Peripheral Nervous System
Term
What are the 2 divisions of the Central nervous system?
Definition
The brain and the spinal chord
Term
What are the three divisions of the brain?
Definition

1. Forbrain

i)Cerebrum- cerebral cortex, basal nuclei

ii) Diencephalon - thalamus, hypothalamus

 

2. Cerebellum

 

3. Brainstem - medulla, pons, midbrain

Term
What are the 2 divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System?
Definition

1. Afferent division

2. Efferent division

 

Term
What does the Afferent division do?
Definition
conveys information from the sensors in the periphery to the central nervous system
Term
What divisions are the divisions within the Efferent division?
Definition

1. Somatic nervous system

2. Autonomic nervous system

 i) Sympathetic division

 ii) Parasympathetic division

Term
What does the somatic nervous system control?
Definition
Skeletal muscles
Term
What does the autonomic nervous system control?
Definition
Smooth and cardiac muscles, and glands
Term
What are Neuroglia? and what is there function?
Definition
Glial cells comprise about 90% of the cells in the CNS. There are 4 main types of glial cells that serve as connective tissue and help support the neurons both physically and metabolically.
Term
What are neurons anad what are they comprized of?
Definition

Neurons are nerve cells that are specialized to transmit electrical signals.

It consists of

1)Cell body (stoma)

2) Axon

3) dendrites

4) Myelin sheath

5) shwann cells

 

Term
Neurons can be divided into 3 functional classes:
Definition

1. Afferent neurons

2. Efferent neurons

3. Interneurons

Term
What does an afferent neuron do?
Definition
carries impulses from the sensory receptor into the spinal chord or brain
Term
What does an efferent neuron do?
Definition
Transmits impulses from the CNS out to the effector organs - muscles (motor neurons) and glands
Term
Where are interneurons?
Definition
entirely in the CNS
Term
What are the stages of a nerve impulse?
Definition

1. Resting potential - high [Na] outside causing the nerve to be electrically negative

2. Action potential - stimulus causes Na ions to flow into the nerve cell causing a reversal of polarity

Term
What are the two types of neurotrinsmitters?
Definition
Excitatory and inhibitory
Term
What is the difference between spatial and temporal summation?
Definition
Spatial summation is from one neuron where as teporal summation is from more then one
Term
At a neuromuscular junction, what is the neurotranmitter?
Definition
acetylcholine
Term
THe spinal chord is enlarged in two regions for innervation of the limbs which are:
Definition

1. Cervical enlargement which extends from C4 to T1

2. Lumbosacral enlargement which extends from T11 to L1

Term
What is a plexus?
Definition
a network of converging and diverging nerve fibers, or blood vessels
Term
What are the two types of matter that the brain and spinal chord are composed of?
Definition
gray and white matter
Term
What makes up the grey matter?
Definition
the cells bodies
Term
What makes up the white matter?
Definition
the axons
Term
How many spinal nerves are there?
Definition
31 pairs of spinal nerves, 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral and 1 coccygeal
Term
What are the two roots each spinal nerve is composed of?
Definition
Dorsal root, Ventral root
Term
What is the dorsol root?
Definition
Contains afferent fibers that carry information from the periphery to the spinal chord and brain
Term
What is the ventral root?
Definition
efferent fibers to the skeletal muscle
Term
Where are the cell bodies of the ventral roots located?
Definition
ventral gray horns of the spinal chord
Term
Where are the cell bodies of the dorsal root located?
Definition
outside the spinal chord in the spinal ganglia
Term
What is a ganglion?
Definition
a collection of nerve cell bodies located outside of the CNS
Term
What is a spinal chord injury?
Definition
a transection of the spinal chord resulting in loss of all sensation and voluntary movemnet inferior to the point of damage
Term
THe patient will be a quadriplegic if the chord is transected superior to _____.
Definition
C5
Term
The patient may die of respiratory failure if spinal chord is transected above _____.
Definition
C4
Term
The patient will be a paraplegic if the spinal chord is transected below the ______  ______ of the spinal chord.
Definition
cervical segment
Term
Deficiency of blood supply is called? This can be caused to the spinal chord by:
Definition

ischemia,

  1. fractures
  2. dislocations
  3. atherosclerosis
Term
When the brain or the spinal chord is damaged do the injured axons ussually repair themselfs?
Definition
no, they usually do not recover
Term
What do proprioceptors do?
Definition
They conduct sensory information to the CNS from muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints. This gives your kinesthetic sense
Term
What are muscle spindles?
Definition
several modified muscle fiber that are contained in a capsule, with a sensory nerve spiralling around its center.
Term
Spindle fibers, also known as (_______) lie parallel to the regular fibers, also known as (_______).
Definition
intrafusal fibers, extrafusaal fibers
Term
What is the function of spindle fibers?
Definition
send informations to the CNS regarding the degree of muscle stretch. This activates the exact number of motor units to overcome the given resistance.
Term
With increasing degrees of stretch of the muscle spindle, the frequency of impulse transmissin up the afferent neuron to the spinal chord progressively ___________.
Definition
increases
Term
What are the three ways that a muscle spindle can activate the alpha motor neurons to cause the muscle to contract:
Definition

1. Tonic stretch

2. phasic stretch

3. gamma system

Term
what is tonic stretch?
Definition
concerned with the final length of the muscle fibers
Term
what is phasic stretch
Definition
spindle responds to the velocity of the change in length
Term
what is the gamma system?
Definition

gamma efferent fibers innervate the contractile ends of the intrafusal fibers. when the alpha motor neurons are activated, the gamma motor neurons are activated (coactivation)

Gamma system provides the mechanism for maintaining the spindle at peak operation at all muscle lengths.

Term
Where are golgi tendon organs located?
Definition
encapsulated in tendon fibers near junction of muscle and tendon fibers. They are in series with the muscle fibers rather than in parallel as are the muscle spindles.
Term
What is the function of golgi tendon organs?
Definition

the firing rate of the GTO is very sensitive to the changes in the tension of the muscle

1. Sensory input is important for a variety of motor acts, such as mainting a steady grip on an object

2. when stimulated by excessive tension or stretch it sends information to the CNS causing the contracted muscle to relax (reflex inhibition) 

- the purpose of this is to protect the muscle and its connective tissue harness from damage due to excessive loads 

Term
What is the purpose of joint receptors?
Definition
supply information to the CNS concerning joint angle, acceleration of the joint, etc.
Term
what are the main centers of the brain employed in learning new motor skills?
Definition
the cerebral cortex and the cerebellum
Term
Where is the primary motor cortex located?
Definition
at the rear of the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex
Term
The ________ ________ ________ contains the motor homunculus.
Definition
primary motor cortex
Term
Stimulation of different areas of the primary motor cortex brings about:
Definition
movement in different, specific areas of the body.
Term
The Pyramidal tract is also known as?
Definition
corticospinal pathway
Term
What is the pyramidal tract?
Definition
long axons which carry impulses from the primary motor cortex where the cell bodies are located directly to lower motor neurons in the spinal chord. This system mediates performance of fine, discrete, voluntary movements of the hands and fingers.
Term
What is the premotor cortex? where is it located?
Definition
one of the three higher areas that command the primary motor cortex. located on the lateral surface of each cerebral hemisphere in front of the primary motor cortex.
Term
what is another name for the extrapyramidal tract?
Definition
multineuronal pathways
Term
What is the purpose of the extrapyramidal tract?
Definition
route used to send impulses from the premotor area down to the lower motorneurons of the spinal chord.
Term
What is special about the extrapyramidal tract compared to the pyramidal tract?
Definition

instead of synapsing directly with motor neurons, this pathway involves many of the other brain regions, including the cerebellum. These pathways are more concerned with posture and coordination of large muscle groups.

Considerable complex interaction and overlapping of function exist between these two systems

Term
Where is the cerebellum located?
Definition
behind the brain stem
Term
What is the function of the cerebellum?
Definition
the major comparing, evaluating, and integrating center for postural adjustments, locomotion, maintanance of equilibrium, perceptions of speed of body movement, and general motor coordination.
Term
how does the cerebellum function?
Definition

by means of intricate feedback circuits to monitor and coordinate other areas of the brain involved in motor control.

It recieves signals concerning motor output from the cortex and sensory information from receptors in muscles, tendons, joints and skin, as well as from visual, auditory and vestibular end organs.

Term
what is motor learning?
Definition
a relatively permanent change in the performance levels of a motor task as the result of practice.
Term
what is motor skill?
Definition
denotes an act or task that has a goal to achieve and that requires voluntary body or limb movement to be properly performed.
Term
How is a motor skill aquired?
Definition
a process in which the learning developes a set of motor responses into an integrated and organized movement pattern. It is a consequence of training and practice.
Term
What are the 4 characteristics of skillful motor performance?
Definition

1. production of a fast output of high quality.

2. an appearance of ease and smoothness of movement.

3. an anticipation of variations in the stimulus situation before they arrive.

4. Reduction in time to make a choice of responses once the signal is identified

Term
What are the three types of variables that affect the learning of a motor skill?
Definition

1. Input variables

2. state of the performer

3. nature of the practice afforded

Term
what are input variables?
Definition
they involve the capacity of a performer to understand directions, to judge velocities of objects in a complex space field, as well as his ability to precieve his own movements.
Term
what is the state of the performer?
Definition
maturation, tension and arousal, motives
Term
what is nature of the practice afforded?
Definition
whether practice is massed or distributed, whether a  skill is practiced as a whole or in parts, or whether the skill is a component in a series
Term
What is the purpose of a motor skill classification system?
Definition
to determine which components of a skill are common or similar to components of another skill.
Term
What are the motor skill classification systems based on?
Definition

1. Based on precision of movement

2. Based on the distinctiveness of beginning and end points of the movement

3. based on stability of enviornment in which the skill is performed

Term
the percision of movement is based on:
Definition

1. Gross motor skills- involve large musculature as the primary basis for movement

2. Fine motor skills- skills the require the abilty to control small muscles of the body in order to achieve the successful execution of the skill

Term
The distinctiveness of beginning and end points of the movement can be broken into:
Definition

1. discrete motor skill- clearly defined begining and end point. these can be put together to form serial motor skills

2. continuous motor skills- have arbitrary beginning and end points.

Term
The stability of the environment is based on?
Definition

1. closed skills- the performance environment is stable

2. open skills- the performance environment is constantly changing

Term
What are the stages of skill aquisition?
Definition

1. cognitive state

2. Associative stage

3. Autonomous stage

Term
What is the cognitive stage?
Definition
Performer is concerned with organization of which movements to make rather that how to make them
Term
What is the associative Stage?
Definition
Concerned with how to do rather then what to do
Term
What is the autonomous stage?
Definition
Movements that make up the motor responses have been automated and, where appropriate, spare attension may be devoted to other tasks
Term
what is knowledge of results?
Definition
information about a learner's response provided from an external source after completion of the response
Term
what are the three important functions KR has in learning?
Definition

1. to guide error correction

2. to reinforce correct performance

3. motivate the individual toward achieving a performance goal.

Term
What is transfer of learning?
Definition
the influence of a previously practiced skill on the learning of a new skill
Term
what are the 4 types of transfer of learning?
Definition

1. positive transfer

2. negative transfer

3. zero transfer

4. bilateral transfer- one hand helps the other

Term
Is increasing the variability within each practice session or practicing one variation during each practice session better?
Definition
increasing the variabilty within each practice session
Term
what is mental practice?
Definition
the cognitive rehearsal of a physical skill in the absense of overt, physical practice.
Term
What is the pressure of air at sea level? at 33 ft below? at 66 feet below?
Definition
760mm Hg, 2 atm, 3 atm
Term
what is hydrostatic pressure?
Definition
the weight of a column of water directly above a divers body
Term
the hydrostatic pressure increases by __ atm for each additional __ ft of depth
Definition
1, 33
Term
what is boyles law?
Definition
the volume of any gas varies inversely with the pressure on it (ie. if pressure is doubled volume is halved)
Term
what are the 2 factors that contribute to the limit of snorkel size?
Definition

1. Pressure effects- when breathing through a snorkel, the diver must inspire air at atmospheric pressure.

2. Increase in pulmonary dead space

Term
What is breath hold diving?
Definition
Divers that do not use supplemented oxygen
Term
as the diver descends the air in the lungs is _______. which is called _______ ________.
Definition
compressed, lung squeeze
Term
when lung volume is compressed below residual volume, _______ _______ may occur
Definition
lung damage
Term
What technique can increase your maximal breathhold time?
Definition
hyperventilation, to reduce arterial CO2 levels
Term
What is Paradoxical drowning? 
Definition
diver hyperventilates and dives down, gas in lungs is compresses, diver holds breath for as long as possible and starts to ascend, partial pressure of gas in lungs decreases, PaO2 decreases below critical point, diver loses consciousness and drowns.
Term
What is normal PaO? what is critical PaO2?
Definition
100 mmHg, 30 mmHg
Term
What does scuba stand for?
Definition
self contained underwater breathing apparatus
Term
What is an open-curcuit scuba?
Definition
used by sport divers, as diver starts to inspire, slight negative pressure cause inpiratory valve on demand regualtor to open causing air to enter diver's lungs. On exhalation, the exhaled air is discharged into the water.
Term
what is an embolus?
Definition
any material that enters and obstructs a blood vessel
Term
How is an air embolism caused?
Definition

diver inflates lungs and begins to ascend. as rising the partial presser in the lungs decreases and from boyles law the volume of gas increasing causing:

1. alveoli to rupture.

2. air bubbles to enter blood vessels blocking arteries in heart or brain causing heat attack or stroke.

Term
What is the biggest rule when diving?
Definition
Never hold your breath.
Term
What is Pneumothorax?
Definition
Lung collapse. Rupture of alveoli, causing an air pocket to form between the lungs and the chest wall, as pressure decreases air expands and collapses the lungs.
Term
What is Nitrogen Narcosis?
Definition

at depths over 100ft, the increased partial pressure and quantity of dissolved nitrogen produces an anesthetic effect on the central nervous system.

The effects are simmilar to alcohol (ie. decreased awareness to cold, hallucinations, decreased attentiveness, reckless behaviour)

Term
What is "the bends"?
Definition
also known as decompretion sickness. If the diverascends to the surface too rapidly after a deep, prolonged dive, dissolved nitrogen moves out of solution and forms bubbles in body tissues and fluids. Pain is usualy felt around joints within 4-6 hours.
Term
How to prevent potential medical roblems associated with scuba diving?
Definition
ascend to the surface in stages- decompression stops
Term
What is oxygen poisoning?
Definition

when inspired PO2 exceeds 1520 mmHg for longer than 30-60mins

can cause: irritation of respiratory passages which pregress to pneumonia

Term
what is Mask squeeze?
Definition
When the pressure inside the mask is much lass then the pressure outside, can cause your eyes to be sucked out.
Term
what is the Eustachian tube? what is its purpose?
Definition

a small membrane lined passage connecting the middle ear cavity and the back of the throat.

equilibrate the pressure within the ear cavity with the outside by transfering air to or from the lungs

Term
what is middle ear squeeze?
Definition
the eustachian tube is either partialy or totally blocked increasing pressure against the ear drum. hemorrage of tissues in the middle ear (equalization of pressure by bleeding) and possible rupture of the ear drum may occur.
Term
What are the mechanisms of heat loss?
Definition

1. Radiation

2. Conduction

3. Convection

4. Evaporation

Term
what is radiation?
Definition
the exchange of electromagnetic energy waves emitted from one object and absorbed by another
Term
what is conduction?
Definition
the exchange of temperature when two objects are in contact
Term
what is convection?
Definition
requires that one media be moving as occurs with a fluid or gaseous medium. for example, heat transfer from skin to moving air.
Term
What is evaporation?
Definition
the transfer of heat from the body surface through the change of liquid water on the skin to a gaseous water vapour in the environment.
Term
heat conduction in water is __ times greater than in air.
Definition
25
Term
wind chill index-
Definition
gives the equivalent still air temperature for a particular ambient temperature at different wind velocities.
Term
what are the two physiological responses to a cold environment?
Definition

1. Increase in metabolic rate

a) voluntary- exercise

b) involuntary- shivering

 

2. Increased tissue insulation - vasoconstriction of peripheral blood vessels and shunting of blood flow into deeper vessels.

Term
place that superficial blood vessels do not constrict?
Definition
in the head, can account for 30-35% heat loss
Term
What factors affect responses to cold?
Definition

1. skinfold thickness

2. Gender

3. clothing

Term
What should different layers  of clothing do?
Definition
outer layer is wind resistand and water repellent. middle layers should provide insulation. The innermost clothing should not only porvide insulation but also wick moisture away from the skin to reduce evapoative heat loss (polyester or polypropylene)
Term
What is hypothermia?
Definition
a condition characterized by a body core temperature below 35°C
Term
Shivering will cease when core body temperature drops below _______°C
Definition
32-34°C
Term
Death occurs when Tc drops below______°C
Definition
24-28°C
Term
Factors associated with hypothermia:
Definition

1. Immersion in cold water or wet clothing

2. wind

3. Physical exhaustion

4. Inadequate clothing for conditions

5. low percent body fat

6. hypoglycemia

7. alcohol consumption - causes a decrease in shivering, increase blood flow to skin, impairs judgment

Term
How does hypothermia cause death?
Definition
hypothermia causes the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve to shift to the left, increased hemoglobin affinity for O2 , less O2 is released at tissues, body shifts to anaerobic metabolism, hypoxia of the heart and brain plus metabolic acidosis, depressed brain function and cardiac output, ventricular fibrillation and death
Term
what is frostbite?
Definition
Freezing of superficial tissues which occurs when skin temperature reaches between minus 2-6°C
Term
What affect does cold environment have on the respiratory tract?
Definition
since cold air is very dry, the cells lining the respiratory passageways become dry, may cause throat iritation.
Term
When Tc is decreased, VO2 max is ________. This is due to a ______ maximal heart rate.
Definition
Decreased, decreased
Term
A cold person will have a faster onset of fatique because?
Definition
when core temperature is decreased you ues glycogen stores at a faster rate
Term
What is concidered medium altitude?
Definition
5000-10000 ft
Term
what is considered high altitude?
Definition
greater than 10,000 ft
Term
What happenes to barometric pressure as altitude increases?
Definition
Barometric pressure decreases as the weight of the column of air above the point of measurement decreases.
Term
The chemical composition of the atmosphere is uniform up to  __________ ft.
Definition
20,000 ft
Term
How do you calculate Po2 at a given altitude?
Definition
barometric pressure × %composition of oxygen(.209)
Term
At what altitude does the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve start to make considerable changes?
Definition
above 10,000ft
Term
What is hypoxia?
Definition
an exposure to reduces Po2
Term
What is the height that an unacclimatized person will lose consciousness within a few minutes during acute exposure to hypoxia?
Definition
23, 000ft
Term
Because of a decreased air density at higher altitudes what can you infer about air resistance?
Definition
air resistance is less at higher altitudes.
Term
How much does temperature decrease per 1000 meters? 1000 ft?
Definition
6.5°C/1000m, 2°C/1000ft
Term
What happens to the humidity as you go up? What can this tell you about water loss from the respiratory tract?
Definition
air becomes increasingly dry. Increased water loss.
Term
what happens to UV radiation as altitude increases? What might this cause?
Definition
increases. sunburn, snow blindness
Term
What happens to the force of gravity as altitude increases?
Definition
gravity decreases
Term
VO2 =?
Definition
(HR × SV) × (CaO2 - CvO2)
Term
How does the body compensate for decreased PaO2 during the first week of hypoxia?
Definition
increase in HR
Term
What happens to cardiac output after the first week of hypoxia? Why is this possible?
Definition
cardiac output falls to or below sea level values. there is a progressive increase in O2 extraction (more efficient method of delivering O2.
Term
What is the most important long-term adaptation to altitude?
Definition
increase in the blood's oxygen carrying capacity
Term
How does hemoglobin concentration increase during the first 2 days at altitude?
Definition
decrease in plasma volume, and increase in RBC production by bone marrow
Term
even after several months VO2 max still remains _____ sea level values.
Definition
below
Term
What receptors are triggered by decreased alveolar and arterial PO2?
Definition
aortic and carotid chemoreceptors
Term
Hyperventilation does what to PACO2 levels during the first 2 days of acclimatization?
Definition
decreases
Term
a decreased PACO2 does what to blood pH? what does the body do to compensate?
Definition
increase in pH (alkalosis). kidneys excrete excess HCO3 to lower pH values.
Term
What are the two factors that account for a declining VO2 max?
Definition

1. decreased oxygen content in arterial blood.

2. decrease in maximal cardiac output due to a decrease in maximum heart rate and stroke volume. Decreased stroke volume decreased by reduction of venous return volume because of decreased blood volume.

Term
what is the Starling mechanism?
Definition
decreased maximum stroke volume due to reduction in venus return which is caused by the decreased blood volume
Term
muscle and blood lactate levels are higher at altitude because?
Definition

a) since VO2 max is decreased a higher percentage of VO2 max is needed

b) there is reduce blood buffering because of the loss of bicarbonate ions

Term
What is the highest permanent settlement? why is this the highest?
Definition
17,000 ft in the Andes. After this altitude acclimatization stops and physical na dmental conditions begin to deteriorate.
Term

The number of days needed to acclimatize depends on the altitude:

9000ft->

12000ft->

15000ft-> 

Definition

7-10 days

15-21 days

21-25 days

 

Term
the benefits of acclimatization are lost within _ or _ weeks after returning to sea level.
Definition
2, 3
Term
in order for endurance athletes the attain top achievment at altitudes 6500 ft or higher they should acclimatize for_ or _ weeks, and non-endurance athletes may arrive close to the time of competition.
Definition
2, 3
Term
what is "sleep high, train low"
Definition
athletes should sleep at high altitudes and train at low altitudes.
Term
what are some adaptations to altitude which shoulds increase VO2 max?
Definition

a) increased hemoglobin concentration

b) local muscle adaptations - in creased number of mitochondria, oxidative enzymes

Term
Adaptations which hinder performance on return to sea level?
Definition

1) decreased maximum stroke volume

2) increased VE at a given workload

2) decreased buffering capacity of blood for lactic acid

Term
Prevention of altitude illnesses?
Definition

1. staged ascent - ones reaching 8,000 ft you should not increase by more then 1000 ft/day.

2. avoid alcohol

3. High carb diet

4. appropriate exercise level

5. Take certain drugs (Diamox)

6. fluid ingestion

7. keep in mind that different people acclimatize at different rates

 

Term
symptoms of acute mountain sickness (AMS)?
Definition
headache, fatigue, irratability, loss of apetite, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, insomnia
Term
What is High-altitude pulmonary edema? (HAPE) at what altitude can it occur?
Definition
accumulations of fluid in the alveoli causing decreased diffusing capacity of oxygen. above 10,000 ft
Term
What is High-Altitude Cerebral Edema (HACE)? at what elevation can this occur?
Definition
Accumulation of excess fluid in the brain. above 12,000 ft
Term
What are some other medical problems caused by altitude?
Definition

1. Retinal hemorrhage above 17500 ft

2. hypothermia, frostbite, sunburn

Term
Biomechanics-
Definition
the application of mechanical laws to living structures, specifically to the locomotor system of the human body
Term
 6 Uses of biomechanics?
Definition

1. Improvement of sports skill technique

2. Design of sports equipment

3. prevention of injuries

4. Clinical analysis of movement pathologies

5. Design of prostheses

6. Design of rehabilitation devices

Term
what is a qualitative analysis?
Definition
a non-numerical description of movement based on observation
Term
What is quantitative analysis?
Definition
a movement analyzed numerically based on measurements
Term
mass is?
Definition
quantity of matter contained in an object
Term
Force=? and is meassured in what units?
Definition
mass × acceleration, units= Newtons
Term
what is weight?
Definition
The amount of gravitational force exerted on a body
Term
acceleration of gravity = ?
Definition
9.81m/s2
Term
Units of weight?
Definition
Newtons
Term
Torque=? Units?
Definition
the product of force and the perpendicular distance from the force's line of action to the axis of rotation. units= Newton-meters (N•m)
Term
Moment arm is?
Definition
the perpendicular distance between the force's line of actions and the axis of rotation
Term
Mechanical advantage of a lever=
Definition
the ratio of force arm length to resistance arm length (FA/RA)
Term
volume is?
Definition
the amount of space an object occupies
Term
Pressure is? units=?
Definition

force distributed over a given area. Units= N/cm2

P= F/A

Term
compression-
Definition
pressing or squeezing force directly axially through the body
Term
tension-
Definition
pulling or stretching force directly axially through a body
Term
shear-
Definition
force directed parallel to a surface
Term
Mechanical stress = ?
Definition
F/A
Term
Steps to lifting a heavy object.
Definition

1. get someone to help

2. Stand facing the object feet flat pointing straight and shoulder wisth apart

3. Face the object in the direction you intend to move it (avoid twisting)

4. Keep the object as close to you as possible

5. get a good grip

6. bend at knees and hip keeping back straight

7. lift using knee and hip extensor muscles

8. carry object close to your center of gravity

 

Term
One should never lift something when?
Definition
just after waking up, sitting for a long time, stooped position
Term
when lifting which muscle should you consciously flex?
Definition
abdominal muscles
Term
what is the center of gravity?
Definition

1. the point of intersection of the three cardinal planes of the body ;frontal, transverse and sagittal

2. the point of exact center, around which the body can rotate

3. the point around which the weight is equal on all opposite sides

Term
Where can you find center of gravity?
Definition
5cm anterior to the second sacral vertebra, or 6 cm below the belly button. on average slightly higher in males than in females- 57% versus 55% of height
Term
Why is it usefull to determine CG?
Definition

1. Used to describe the movement of the body through space.

2. Important for stability

3. It is important factor in calculation of amount of work done

Term
How might you determine CG?
Definition

1. reactions board method - used for a static position of the body. Assume that the center of gravity is the fulcrum or balance point and then apply the Principle of Levers.

2. Segmental method - can be used for finding CG of a body in motion

Term
How is balance maintained?
Definition
keeping CG over the base of support
Term
Stability can be increased by:
Definition

1. Increasing body mass

2. Increasing the size of the base of support in the direction of the line of action of an external force

3. Vertically positioning the CG as low as possible

4. Increasing friction between the body and the surface contacted

5. Horizontally positioning the CG near the edge of the base of support towards the oncoming external force

Term
What are Newtons laws of Motion?
Definition

1. Law of inertia

2. law of acceleration

3. Law of reaction

Term
what is Newtons first law?
Definition
Law of intertia- a body will maintain a state of rest or constatn velocity unless acted on by an external force
Term
What is newtons second law?
Definition
Law of acceleration - Force= mass times acceleration
Term
What is newtons third law?
Definition
Law of reaction - when one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body exerts a force that is equal in magnitude and oppistite in direction as the first body
Term
Momentum=
Definition
momentum= mas times velocity
Term
work= ? units?
Definition

work = force times distance

units= 1.0nm = 1.0 J (joule)

Term

Power = ?

units?

Definition

power = work per unit time = Fd/Δt = force times velocity

units = watts - 1 watt = 1 J/sec.

Term
Differences between walking and running?
Definition

1. in running there is a period when both feet are off the ground. Consider running as a series of jumps.

2. In running, there is no period where both feet are on the ground at the same time.

3. In running, the stance phase is much smaller in proportion of the total gait cycle than in walking

Term
Running speed =
Definition
Running speed = stride length × stride rate
Term
An example of first, second and third class lever:
Definition

first class- fulcrum in the middle (lifting rock with plank of wood)

second class- resistance between fulcrum and force (wheel barrow)

third class- force between fulcrum and resistance ( arm)

Term
What is the lever equation?
Definition
Fa1*D1 = Fa2*D2
Term
In the reaction board method Y=distance from knife edge to persons CG=
Definition
((weight with person-weight without person)(length of the board))/ Mass of person
Term
 What is the name of the blood pressure cuff and manometer together?
Definition
sphygmomanometer
Term
what is the Korotkoff sound?
Definition
blood through artery sound
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