Cryptococcus neoformans 

Blastomyces spp

Histoplasma spp

Aspergilus spp

You shouldn't - they are often not helpful diagnostically 

there can be laboratory contaminants - only pure samples cultures are relevant 

Epithelium 

Submucosal glands 

anterior nasal glands 

sneezing - periodic 

seasonality 

normal TPR

What are the causes of viral rhinitis?

SURGERY

All patients with bacterial rhinitis have a primary, chronic inflammatory disease involing the nasal passages.

True or false?

TRUE 

things like foreign bodies, aspiration pneumonia

without resolving the underlying problem they will not ever truely clear up 

It is a flat, pale, poorly staining red blood cell

associated with chronic blood loss/iron deficiency anemia 

Hemoglobinuria and hemoglobinemia will be found with which?

A) intravascular hemolysis 

B) extravascular hemolysis 

C) Both 

Intravascular hemolysis 

this is where port wine colored urine will be seen 

IgM 

because it is a pentamer and will hold 5 

this makes it easier to bundle together 

Direct coombs testing should be preformed:

A) when IMHA is suspected but auto-agglutination is negative

B) when IMHA is suspected and aut-agglutination is positive to confirm 

C) With ALL CBCs 

A) 

If the animal is already positive for auto-agglutination 

then there is no reason to run a coombs test 

Immune destruction of platelets in addition to IMHA 

this decreases the prognosis 

Elevated globulins (immune response) 

Elevated hepatic enzymes (hepatocyte ypoxia) 

Cholestasis 

Pre-renal azotemia 

Rarey - acute renal failure (from ischemia, DIC, sepsis) 

COCKER SPANIEL

Poodle

Irish Setter 

Old English Setter 

IgM 

it is a pentamer so it can grab onto more 

PK deficiency 

Phosphofructokinase deficiency 

Chondrodysplasia/anemia

Nonspherocytic hemolytic anemia 

This is where the mother (usually of kittens and foals) have antibody against the offsprings blood type.

This is a primary cause of IMHA 

Provide supportive care (hydration, diuresis) 

Treat tissue hypoxia (blood transfusion) 

Prevent hemolysis with immunosuppressive therapy 

(prednisone/prednisolone/dexamethasone)

Deter formation of thrombi 

Immune suppression is a method of treating IMHA, but also can increase the risk of sepsis, so prophylactic antibiotics should be administered,

True or False?

FALSE 

prophylactic antibiotics are not indicated 

Which of the following is the primary treatment for IMHA?

A) Broad spectrum antibiotics 

B) Prednisone

C) Azathioprine 

D) Splenectomy 

Answer: B) 

these are the immunosuppressive drug of choice, but if causing to many side effects, move on to Azatioprine, and if not responsive - splenectomy (last resort) 

antibiotics are not indicated for IMHA until there is in infection 

HOWEVER - it may be that there is more than one drug at a time used to treat this 

Which of the following situations can be FATAL?

A) Giving type A blood to a type A cat

B) Giving type B blood to a type B cat

C) Giving type A blood to a type B cat 

D) Giving type B blood to a type A cat

C) giving type A to a type B 

Type A is the more common blood type by far 

All cats should be typed PRIOR to any transfusion 

A compatible crossmatch will guarentee RBC survival before transfusion.

True or False?

Blood product should not be microwaved or re-chilled after thawing.

True or False?

TO prevent thromboembolism 

the pore size should be narrowed to 170-260 microns

Which of the following is NOT a common clinical sign of bacterial rhinitis?

A) nasal turbinate destruction 

B) facial deformities

C) neurologic signs 

D) severe weight loss

Answer: A) nasal turbinate destruction 

it very rarely occurs 

Escherichia coli

Bacillus 

Neisseria

Staphylococcus 

Streptococcus 

Heavy growth of a single colony

Isolates obtained from caudal nasal cavity (surgical)

Treating the underlying/primary disease 

*antimicrobial therapy will only result in temporary resolution of clinical signs*

increased inspiratory effort

restrictive breathing

orthopnea (shortness of breath in recumbancy) 

Thoracic radiographs 

this will evaluate the extent of the pneumothorax, and pulmonary parechymal disease/damage

When the pleural cavity is open to air.

Will cause suction on inspiration

This is when the thoracic wall remains intact. 

These are caused when the thorax is compressed against a closed glottis resulting in tears in the lung parenchyma

Pulmonary collagen defect 

it is uncommon in cats and dogs 

Tachypnea

anxiety 

cyanosis 

pale mucous membranes 

open mouth breathing

increased width of air-filled pleural space

partial lung lobe collapse

retraction of lobe margins from chest wall

At what magnitude of pneumothorax should thoracocentesis be considered?

Where should the needle be placed?

When more than 20-30% of the chest cavity is filled with air - thoracocentesis should be considered.

The needle should be placed between the 7th and 9th ribs and up 2/3 of the chest wall from the sternum

tube thoracostomy:

allows for more frequent/constant evculation of pleural air

decreased risk of lung laceration 

drain acts are foreign body = increased fibrin 

powered tetracycline and saline mixture can be used in a hemithorax to cause pleurodesis. Tetracycline acts as a sclerosing agents that irritates causing the visceral and parietal pleura to adhere to one another = air evacuated from pleural space.

THIS IS PAINFUL becuase of low pH of solution

Thoracocentesis and emergency therapy (like oxygen supplementation) 

Before testing! 

What is pleural fluid?

Where is it produced?

What is the normal volume and composition?

Pleural fluid is an ultrafiltrate of plasma 

Secreted by meothelial cells 

volume = 0.1-0.2 ml/kg

composed of less than 3,000 cells/ul 

Chronic protein loss from renal disease 

Lack of protein from severe hepatic disease

heart failure

neoplasia

septoc effusions 

aseptic inflammatory effusion (FIP) 

hemorrhagic - from trauma

One or more of the following:

1) presence of interlobar fissure lines 

2) rounding of lung margins 

3) separation of lung lobe borders away from thoracic wall

4) scalloping of lung lobe margins dorsal to sternum 

5) blurring of caridac silhouette 

6) widening of mediastinum 

When preforming thoracocentesis, the needle should be introduced at the cranial or caudal border of the rib?

Why?

Cranial 

to avoid intercostal vessels and nerves (which are caudal)

cytology 

physical and biochemical characterisitics 

aerobic and anaerobic culture 

fungal culture

hypoalbuminemia 

from decreased production:

- intestinal malabsorption/maldigestion

- malnutrition 

- chronic liver disease 

From increase loss

- glomerulonephropathies 

- hemorrhage 

- exudative inflammatory diseases 

- protein losing enteropathies

When there are hemorrhagic pleural effusions, the packed cell volume and cell counts of the fluid is:

A) higher than peripheral blood 

B) similar to peripheral blood

C) lower than peripheral blood 

Presence of neutrophils

will be a cloudy fluid with varied coloration- high protein content, high specific gravity 

ANAEROBES

Felines: 

- Bacteroides, Fusobacterium 

Canines:

- Fusobacterium, Actinomyces, Nocardia, Streptococcus

**Aerobes are less common, but Pasteurella multocida is most common aerobe in cats and dogs**

increased hydrostatic pressye in blood vessels/lymph that drain to the pleural cavity.

compression from masses/neoplasia

systemic venous hypertension 

*****Congestive heart failure *******

CARDIOMYOPATHY 

Modified tranudates or exudates - milky appearance 

mostly lymphocytes and neutrophils 

Trauma 

coagulation defects 

neoplastic processes (eroding through major blood vessels)

*self-limiting unless coagulopathy*

The use of continuous water seal suction is considered the key to complete and rapid removal od infected pleural exudate.

True or False?

TRUE 

And patients will not clinically improve until effective drainage is established

1) radiographic evidence showing complete evacuation of pleural fluid for 48 hours

2) negative gram stain 

3) production of less than 50 ml(k9)/15 ml(feline) of non-purulent fluid in 24 hours 

Treatment of pyothorax is most successful when thoracocentesis and antibiotic therapy are administered.

True or False?

FALSE 

Treatment of pyothorax include tube thoracostomy with water seal drainage and long-term antibiotic therapy. 

Mortality of 40-80% is noted with thoracocentesis and abx alone

thoracocentesis and sample collection:

- ether clearance test (chylomicrons dissolve in ether and fluid becomes clear) 

- measure and compare cholesterol and triglyceride levels of serum and pleural fluid 

Medical managment:

- thoracocentesis 

- dietary management (low fat and short/med chian triglyceride supplementation) 

- benzopyrone drugs (Rutin - reduce effusions) 

SURGICAL THERAPY:

- ligation of leaking thoracic ducts 

- pleurodesis (poor ) 

thymic lymphoma 

mestheliomas

metastatic carcinomas

hemangiosarcomas

Bacterial culture should be preformed to determine the proper antibiotic use when treating tonsillitis.

True or False?

FALSE

tonsils will have organisms that would be found in health OR infection, so just start the animal on amoxicillin or another broad spectrum antibiotic 

Monitor during recovery to watch for aspiration 

no food for 24 hours 

soft foods for 2 weeks 

corticosteroids and broad spectrum abx for 7 days 

(healing is complete within 10-14 days) 

Tracheobronchial collapse is classified as:

A) Small airway disease 

B) Large airway disease 

C) Both small and large airway disease 

middle-aged or older 

SMALL dogs (less than 10 kg) 

BREED PREDILICTION:

Toy and mini poodles, chihuahuas, yorkies, pomeranians

loss of chondroitin sulfate, glycosaminoglycan, and calcium 

may also have more fibrous-fribrocartilagenous tissue

Chronic valvular disease predisposes to airway collapse.

True or false?

TRUE

volume overload - upward displacement of the left mainstem bronchus 

Physical exam 

Signalment 

GOOD THORACIC XRAYS

There is NO CURATIVE TREATMENT

Medical:

- weight reduction 

- corticosteroids 

- antitussives (hycodan, lomotil)

- treat for endocartitis if present 

- bronchodilators (theophylline, aminophylline) 

Surgical