Term
| Hitler in Domestic Affairs- Range of Opinions |
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Definition
some argue that Hitler’s regime brought many benefits to majority of German people
others believe that his whole career was a complete disaster and that his so-called successes were a myth created by Joseph Goebbels, Nazi Minister of Propaganda
some German historians claim that Hitler was a weak ruler who never actually initiated any policy of his own |
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Term
| Hitler in Domestic Affairs- Successful Argument |
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Definition
Nazis were successful because they provided many benefits and developed a flourishing economy
hence Hitler’s great popularity with the masses, which endured well on into 1940s, in spite of hardships of war
if only Hitler had succeeded in keeping Germany out of was, so theory goes, all would have been well, and his Third Reich might have lasted a thousand years (as he boasted it would) |
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Term
| Hitler in Domestic Affairs- Only Superficially Successful Argument |
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Definition
Hitler’s supposed successes could not stand test of time
so-called “economic miracle” was an illusion; there was a huge budget deficit and country was, technically, bankrupt
superficial success was achieved by methods unacceptable in a modern civilized society |
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Term
| Hitler as a "Weak Dictator"- Range of Opinions |
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Definition
some argue that Hitler, in spite of all propaganda about charismatic leader and man of destiny, Hitler had no special program or plan, and simply exploited circumstances as they occurred
others believe that Hitler was an all-powerful dictator
some suggest a "half-and-half" interpretation |
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Term
| Hitler as a "Weak Dictator"- Weak Dictator Argument |
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Definition
historians: Hans Mommsen, Martin Broszat
argued that many of policies attributed to Hitler were in fact instigated or pressed on him by others and then taken up by Hitler |
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Term
| Hitler as a "Weak Dictator"- Strong Dictator Argument |
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Definition
historians: Norman Rich, Eberhard Jäckel
called “master in the Third Reich”
described government as a “monocracy” |
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Term
| Hitler as a "Weak Dictator"- Half-and-Half Argument |
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Definition
historian: Ian Kershaw
theory of “working towards the Fuhrer”- said by a Nazi official that it is duty of every single person to attempt in spirit of Fuhrer to work towards him
“initiatives were taken, pressures created, legislation instigated- all in ways which fell into line with what were taken to be Hitler’s aims, and without dictator necessarily having to dictate
policy became increasingly radicalized in this way |
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Term
| Mussolini/Fascism Opposition and Downfall- Reasons for Downfall |
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Definition
entry into World War II was a disastrous mistake, people feared Italy becoming a German satellite, bad economic situation
general public suffered hardships, such as high taxes, massive inflation, and British bombing raids on major cities
Italians suffered a string of defeats
Mussolini seemed to have lost his touch, becoming concerned with petty issues such as sacking a few critics |
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Term
| Mussolini/Fascism- Range of Opinions |
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Definition
it was a temporary aberration in Italian history, work solely of Mussolini
fascism grew naturally from Italian history; environment and circumstances shaped rise and success of fascism, not reverse |
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Term
| Russian Revolution- Types of Opinions |
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Definition
official Soviet interpretation
traditional liberal interpretation
libertarian interpretation
revisionist interpretations |
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Term
| Russian Revolution- Official Soviet Interpretation |
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Definition
Bolshevik takeover was result of a mass movement: workers, peasants and most of soldiers and sailors were attracted by revolutionary politics of Bolsheviks
Lenin was a charismatic and inspirational leader
Bolsheviks had to use force in only 16 out of 97 major centers to assert their authority |
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Term
| Russian Revolution- Traditional Liberal Interpretation |
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Definition
put forward by Western historians, including Adam Ulam and Richard Pipes
refused to accept that there was any significant popular support for Bolsheviks, who were simply a minority group of professional revolutionaries who used chaos in Russia to take power for themselves
they were successful because they were well organized and ruthless |
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Term
| Russian Revolution- Libertarian Interpretation |
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Definition
October revolution was result of a popular uprising, which had very little to do with Bolsheviks
masses were not responding to Bolshevik pressure, but to their own aspirations and desires; they had no need of Bolsheviks to tell them what they wanted
historian: Alexander Berkman
tragedy was that Bolsheviks hijacked popular revolution |
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Term
| Russian Revolution- Revisionist Interpretations |
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Definition
wide-ranging
all agree that there was great political awareness among ordinary people, many of whom were involved in trade unions and soviets
in some places they seem to have been influenced by Bolsheviks, such as Kronstadt
most widely accepted nowadays
historians: Christopher Read, Robert Service |
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Term
| Lenin- Admiring/Sympathetic Views |
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Definition
historians: A.J.P. Taylor, Moshe Lewin
Lenin was responsible for creation of Soviet Russia and its survival
Lenin was forced unwillingly into policies of violence and terror and struggled to steer communism towards peace |
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Term
| Lenin- Traditional/Liberal View |
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Definition
historian: Richard Pipes
Lenin was a ruthless dictator who paved way for even more ruthless and brutal dictatorship of Stalin
Bolshevik seizure of power resulted from Lenin’s desire for power |
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Term
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Definition
historian: Robert Service
Lenin was certainly ruthless, intolerant and repressive, and even seemed to enjoy unleashing terror
despite this, power was not an end in itself; Lenin was a visionary |
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Term
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Definition
admiring/sympathetic
traditional/liberal
balanced |
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Term
| Stalin- Traditional Western-Democratic View |
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Definition
historians: Adam Ulam, Robert Conquest
Stalin’s regime was totalitarian
Stalin’s system embodied totalitarianism in that it had a one-party state that controlled all aspects and directed them towards achieving state’s goals
state was able to indoctrinate everyone with party ideology and to mobilize society in its support |
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Term
| Stalin- Western Revisionist View |
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Definition
historians: Sheila Fitzpatrick, J. Arch Getty
there was a great deal of solid support for system from many people who benefited from it
to some extent these people were able to show “initiatives from below” to influence policy |
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Term
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Definition
central role of Stalin
regime did not completely ignore public opinion- Stalin wanted to feel popular among new elite groups
not entirely successfully totalitarian- government control was often counterproductive |
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Term
| Stalin- Decline of Reputation |
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Definition
Khrushchev delivered his speech at Twentieth Party Congress in 1956, denouncing Stalin’s excesses
in 1961, Stalin’s body was removed from mausoleum and buried beneath Kremlin wall |
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Term
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Definition
historians: Sheila Fitzpatrick, Martin McCauley, Alec Nove
USSR reached its peak under Stalin
responsible for collectivization, rapid industrialization, new constitution, rise of new bureaucracy, spread of mass education and social services
situation was so desperate when Stalin came to power that only extraordinary methods could have brought success |
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Term
| Stalin- Reasons for Popularity |
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Definition
Stalin was adept at manipulating public opinion, blamed problems on others
succeeded in giving impression that he would correct problems if he knew about them
kept moral high during war
established a cult of personality |
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Term
| Stalin- Mixed Success of Policies |
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Definition
collectivization was a disaster; industrial modernization was a success in heavy industry and armaments and enabled USSR to win war
production, living standards and wages were low
generally said that USSR won war in spite of Stalin |
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Term
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Definition
responsible for about 20 million deaths over and above victims of war
happened during collectivization, famine, Purges, and Great Terror |
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Term
| Stalin- Influence of Leninism |
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Definition
Lenin and Stalin condemned by Alexander Yakovlev
Leninism did not dictate Stalinism according to Irina Pavlova
many western historians believed that Stalin hijacked Revolution and betrayed idealism of Marx and Lenin
Stalin’s rule was remarkable if morality is disregarded according to Martin McCauley |
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Term
| De-Colonization- Neo-Colonialism |
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Definition
| western European countries and the U.S. still exerted a great deal of control over new states, which continued to need markets and investment that west could provide |
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Term
| De-Colonization- Lack of Preparation for Independence |
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Definition
frontiers were artificial and forced on people by Europeans
little incentive for different tribes to stay together
ex: tribal differences helped to cause civil war in Nigeria and Belgian Congo |
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Term
| De-Colonization- Shortcomings of New Governments |
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Definition
in most cases, governments which took over were run by local political elite groups
no social revolution and no guarantee that ordinary people would be any better off
western countries disapproved of socialist or pro-communist governments and cut off aid or destabilized governments- ex: Indonesia, Chad, Mozambique |
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Term
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Definition
Third World states faced intense poverty
economically underdeveloped and often precariously relied on exports of only one or two commodities
loans from abroad left them heavily in debt
Africa was worst hit |
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Term
| De-Colonization- Defense Argument |
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Definition
historian: Niall Ferguson
benefits of British rule were considerable
when Empire came to an end, former British territories were left with successful structures of liberal capitalism, institutions of parliamentary democracy and English language |
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