Term
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Definition
| anything that occupies space and has mass. amount of matter a substance contains. |
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Definition
| force of gravity acting on mass |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| substances that can't be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical reactions |
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Term
| Elements are given chemical symbols |
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Definition
O = oxygen
C = carbon
H = hydrogen
N = nitrogen |
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Term
| Elements found in the body |
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Definition
C, H, O, and N– 96%
Ca, P, K, S, Na, Cl, Mg, I, and Fe– 3.6%
Trace elements like I, and Cu– 0.4% |
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Term
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Definition
| smallest portion of an element that retains its chemical properties |
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Term
| Atoms consist of subatomic particles |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Electrons orbit the nucleus |
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Term
| Number of protons and electrons in an atom |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| number of PROTONS in the nucleus of an atom |
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Term
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Definition
| number of protons AND neutrons in an atom. Isotopes |
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Term
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Definition
Atomic number = 6
Mass number = 12 or 13
Atomic mass = 12.01 |
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Term
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Definition
| an atom that has lost or gained an electron |
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Term
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Definition
| 2 or more atoms sharing electrons |
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Term
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Definition
| a substance that can be broken down into 2 or more different elements |
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Term
| Characteristics of Electrons |
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Definition
| They move through regions of 3-D space called orbitals (electron shells) |
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Term
| Electrons furthest from the nucleus have the most energy and are called |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| participate in chemical reactions |
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Term
| the 1st electron shell holds |
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Definition
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Term
| all remaining shells hold |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| involves the transfer of electrons. produces ions. |
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Term
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Definition
| electrically charged particles |
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Term
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Definition
| positively charged particle |
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Term
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Definition
| negatively charged particle |
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Term
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Definition
| sharing of electrons b/w atoms in which the valence shells of both atoms are filled |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Very weak attraction
Readily formed & broken
Water molecules bond this way |
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Term
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Definition
anabolism
Combination of 2 or more atoms to form larger atoms
Joining amino acids (a.a) to make protein
A + B → AB |
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Term
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Definition
catabolism
Breakdown of a chemical substance
Digestion, breakdown of protein into amino acids (a.a.)
AB → A + B |
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Term
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Definition
Part synthesis, part decomposition
Maintenance of acid/base balance
AB + CD → AD + BC
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
HCl + NaHCO3 → H2CO3 + NaCl |
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Term
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Definition
Products may revert back to the reactants
ADP + P <=> ATP |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
most abundant substance in all living things
Water is the “universal solvent” |
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Term
| substances that readily interact w/water are |
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Definition
| hydrophilic -“water loving” |
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Term
| Substances that do not interact with water are |
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Definition
| hydrophobic -“water fearing” |
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Term
| water participates in chemical reactions |
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Definition
Hydrolysis
Dehydration synthesis |
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Term
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Definition
| adds a water molecule, breaking a bnd |
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Term
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Definition
| removal of water molecule, has unlinked monomer (H2O) to create longer polymer. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| lower heat capacity than water but higher than hexane |
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Term
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Definition
| a substance that dissociates in solution to yield hydrogen cations & an anion |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| HCL, H2SO4, lactic acid, acetic acid |
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Term
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Definition
| a substance that dissociates in solution yielding hydroxide anions & a cation |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| negative logarithm (base 10) of the hydrogen ion concentration |
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Definition
| Ex: If the H+ con.= 10-7, then the pH= 7 |
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Term
| A solution w/a pH of 1 has a |
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Definition
| H+ conc. 10x that of a solution w/a pH of 2 |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| neutral [distilled water] |
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Term
| Normal pH range for plant and animal cells is |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| increasingly basic (alkaline) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
help to regulate pH by converting strong acids or bases into weak acids or bases
H+ + HCO3- H2CO3 |
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Term
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Definition
| Dissociates into anions and cations when dissolved in water |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Salts are important in the body |
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Definition
| Teeth and bones. Lymph, blood, and interstitial fluid. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Organic compounds always contain carbon |
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Term
| Many carbons can combine in a |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Carbon compounds are a good |
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Definition
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Term
| Organic Compounds Example |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| simple sugars, building blocks of complex carbs. Hexoses. |
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Term
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Definition
| contain 6-carbon mol. Glucose, Fructose, and Galactose |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| composed of 2 monosaccharides linked together. Maltose, sucrose, and lactose |
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Term
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Definition
| glucose + glucose (malt sugar) |
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Term
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Definition
| glucose + fructose (table sugar) |
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Term
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Definition
| glucose + galactose (milk sugar) |
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Term
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Definition
| largest group of carbohydrates consisting of repeating units of simple sugars. Starch and Glycogen. |
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Term
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Definition
| Chief energy storage in plants. Ex. Potatoes, rice, and corn. Contains Glucose monomer. |
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Term
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Definition
| Chief energy storage in animals. stored mainly in liver and muscle tissue. Contain Glucose monomer. |
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Term
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Definition
| A Polysaccharide. Most abundant carbohydrate (50% or more of all carbon in plants). Structural carbohydrate. Most animals can't digest cellulose. Cellulose provides us w/fiber in our diet. Contains Glucose monomer. |
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Term
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Definition
| Non-polar, insoluble in water. Composed most of C and H, w/few O. Long term energy storage. Insulation. Protection. |
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Term
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Definition
| Long term energy reserve. Saturated Fatty Acids. |
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Term
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Definition
| All carbons are saturated w/the maximum # of hydrogen atoms. Found in animal products - lard and butter, and plants - vegetable shortening. solid at room temp. Pack closely together in artery walls. Molecules are linear. Block arteries and promote atherosclerosis. Ex. Palmitic acid (C15H31COOH) |
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Term
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Definition
| Neutral Fat. Carbons aren't fully saturated w/hydrogen atoms. Hydrocarbon chain contains double bonds. Double bonds create a bend or kink in molecule. Molecules aren't linear, they don't pack together. 2 types. Monounsaturated and Polyunsaturated. Ex. Oleic acid (C17H33COOH) Monounsaturated. |
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Term
| Triglycerides or triacylglycerols |
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Definition
| Neutral fat. Composed of glycerol molecule attached to 3 fatty acids. Ex. Palmitic acid (C15H31COOH) Saturated, contains Ester linkage to link Stearic acid (C17H35COOH) Saturated, and Oleic acid (C17H33COOH) Monounsaturated. |
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Term
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Definition
| Important in the formation of plasma membranes. Composed of Phosphate group, 2 fatty acid tails, and 1 glycerol. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Polar head in phospholipid |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| part of chemical structure of a phospholipid |
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Term
| Cell membrane of a phospholipid includes |
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Definition
| Arranged as: Polar heads, Nonpolar tails, polar heads |
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Term
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Definition
| Cholesterol, Bile salts, Steroid hormones, and Vitamin D |
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Term
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Definition
| structural component of plasma membranes |
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Term
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Definition
| break large fats into smaller ones |
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Term
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Definition
| Cholesterol, Estradiol, Testosterone, and Cortisol |
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Term
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Definition
| Hydrocarbon tail, Hydroxyl group, 4 rings |
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Term
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Definition
| an estrogen or female sex hormone |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Yellow-orange pigments in egg yolks, carrots, and tomatoes. Needed for vision. |
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Term
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Definition
| Promote wound healing, prevent scarring, antioxidant |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Structural components, Growth and repair, Enzymes, Hormones and chemical messengers, defense, Transport, Movement |
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Term
| Proteins - composition and arrangement |
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Definition
| Composed of C, H, O, N (some have P and S). Amino acids are building blocks. R group (side chain) - gives proteins their unique properties, each a.a. differs in their R group. 20 diff a.a. |
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Term
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Definition
| nonpolar, polar, and electrically charged |
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Term
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Definition
| Ex. Glycine (Gly) H3N+, H, C, H, C, O, O- |
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Term
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Definition
| Serine (Ser). H3N+, H, C, CH2, OH, C, O, O- |
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Term
| Electrically Charged Amino Acid |
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Definition
| Aspartic Acid (Asp). H3N+, H, C, CH2, C, O-, O, C, O, O- |
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Term
| Joining of amino acids to form proteins |
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Definition
| Join by condensation. Form a peptide bond. |
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Term
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Definition
| covalent carbon/nitrogen bond. Ex. Glycine + Alanine >(Dehydration synthesis) <(Hydrolysis) Glycylalanine(a dipeptide) + Water |
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Term
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Definition
| Primary structure (amino acid sequence): peptide bond > Secondary structure (twisting and folding of neighboring amino acids, stabilized by hydrogen bonds): Alpha helix and Beta pleated sheet > Tertiary structure (3D shape of polypeptide chain) > Quaternary structure (arrangement of two or more polypeptide chains) |
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Term
| Alteration of Protein Structure |
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Definition
| Biological activity can be disrupted by a change in a.a. sequence. Changes in 3D structure can also disrupt the activity: Heat and Changes in pH. Results of these changes: Protein unfolds due to breaking of H bonds and ionic interactions. This is called DENATURATION. |
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Term
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Definition
| Substrate go into Enzyme, Product is released from Enzyme. An enzyme is a catalyst in a living cell. Enzymes lower the amount of energy required for a reaction to take place. Enzymes are: Highly specific, Extremely efficient, and Subject to cellular controls. The Energy of reactants is higher than the energy of products. The Activation energy needed w/out catalyst is higher than the activation energy needed w/catalyst. The longer the progress of the reaction, the lower the potential energy. |
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Term
| Nucleic Acids - functions |
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Definition
| Transmit hereditary information. Determines what protein the cell makes. There are 2 types: DNA and RNA. |
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Term
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Definition
| Deoxyribonucleic acid: comprises the genes and all information for synthesizing proteins. Double stranded. |
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Term
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Definition
| Ribonucleic acid: uses the information from DNA to synthesize the proteins. Single stranded. |
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Term
| Building blocks of nucleic acids - Nucleotides |
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Definition
| Nucleic acid's determined by the order of the nucleotides. Nucleotides are composed of: 5-carbon sugar, Phosphate group, and Nitrogen base. |
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Term
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Definition
| part of nucleic acid. G---C |
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Term
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Definition
| Portion of a DNA molecule. Phosphate group, Deoxyribose sugar, Hydrogen bond. Strand 1 and Strand 2. Key to bases: A=Adenine, G=Guanine, T=Thymine, C=Cytosine. |
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Term
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Definition
| Adenosine triphosphate. Primary energy molecule in all cells. |
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Term
| Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) |
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Definition
| Adenosine (adenine and ribose). Phosphate groups. |
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Term
| The cell can be subdivided into 3 parts |
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Definition
| 1. Plasma (cell) membrane 2. Cytoplasm (Cytosol and Organelles) 3. Nucleus (Chromosomes and Genes) |
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Term
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Definition
| Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi complex, Cytoplasm, Nucleus, Plasma Membrane |
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Term
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Definition
| The plasma membrane is a flexible yet sturdy barrier that surrounds and contains the cytoplasm of the cell. Contain phospholipids. |
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Term
| Functions of the Plasma Membrane |
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Definition
| Serves as a barrier b/w the outside and inside of the cell. Regulates what enters and leaves the cell. Cellular communication. Selectively permeable. |
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Term
| The bulk of the plasma membrane is made of |
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Definition
| phospholipids. Amphipathic. |
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Term
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Definition
| molecules w/both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions |
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Term
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Definition
| Membranes are FLUID STRUCTURES because most of the membrane lipids and many membrane proteins move easily in their bilayer. Contains Phospholipids. |
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Term
| Cholesterol stabilizes the |
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Definition
| membrane and reduce membrane fluidity. It wedges itself b/w the fatty acid tails. Keeps the membranes fluid at low temps and stable at high temps. |
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Term
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Definition
| There are 2 types of membrane proteins: Integral proteins(also called transmembrane) and Peripheral proteins |
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Term
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Definition
| Plasma membranes are selectively permeable: The lipid bilayer is ALWAYS permeable to small, non-polar, uncharged molecules. Transmembrane proteins that act as channels or transporters help to increase the number of items that can enter the cell. Macromolecules are only able to pass through the plasma membrane by BULK TRANSPORT. |
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Term
| Movement of Materials Across the Plasma Membrane |
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Definition
| Transport processes that move substances across the cell membrane are: Passive processes and Active processes. |
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Term
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Definition
| no energy required. Simple diffusion. Facilitated diffusion. Osmosis. |
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Term
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Definition
| requires the use of ATP to move molecules in and out of the cell. Active transport and Vesicular transport |
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Term
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Definition
| Simple Diffusion: Random movement of molecules from an area of HIGH CONCENTRATION to an area of LOW CONCENTRATION. Only small, non-polar molecules can pass this way. ex: O2 and CO2 |
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Term
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Definition
| POLAR MOLECULES and LARGE IONS can't diffuse through the membrane like oxygen because the hydrophobic tails won't allow them to pass. They must use integral proteins to cross the plasma membrane. |
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Term
| The processes involved in Facilitated Diffusion |
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Definition
| Channel mediated facilitated diffusion, Carrier mediated facilitated diffusion. Concentration gradient goes in. |
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Term
| Channel Mediated Facilitated Diffusion |
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Definition
| Details of the K+ channel. In Extracellular fluid. |
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Term
| Carrier Mediated Facilitated Diffusion |
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Definition
| Glucose in the Extracellular fluid |
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Term
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Definition
| Simple diffusion just goes through, Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion goes through but with the help of a thing, Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion goes into a thing but can't actually go through without it. |
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Term
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Definition
| Diffusion of water. Passive Transport. |
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Term
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Definition
| Hypotonic Solution, Isotonic Solution, and Hypertonic Solution |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| ISOTONIC, Hypotonic, and Hypertonic |
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Definition
| Isotonic solution: The concentration of solutes is equal both inside and outside the cell. This is the normal solution for a cell. Has Normal RBC shape. |
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Term
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Definition
| The concentration of solutes inside the cell are HIGHER than outside the cell. If a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, the cell will swell and burst -LYSIS. THE CELL TAKES ON WATER FROM THE ENVIRONMENT. RBC undergoes HEMOlysis. |
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Term
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Definition
| The concentration of solutes are higher outside the cell than inside the cell. If a cell's placed in this solution, it will shrivel up - CRENATION. THE CELL WILL LOSE WATER BY OSMOSIS TO THE EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT. RBC undergoes crenation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Active Transport: Active transport requires the use of energy (ATP) to move molecules in and out of the cell. Molecules move AGAINST their concentration gradient. Molecules move from LOW to HIGH concentration. Uses integral proteins. |
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Term
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Definition
| The pump's the protein complex the ions pass through. ATP powers the pump. |
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Term
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Definition
Exocytosis: Removal of waste products or necessary secreted products from the cell.
Endocytosis: Phagocytosis "cell eating" and Pinocytosis "cell drinking" |
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Term
| Parts of a Cell: Cytoplasm |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| intracellular fluid portion of the cytoplasm |
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Term
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Definition
| Microfilament, Intermediate filament, and Microtubule |
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Term
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Definition
Details of centrosome: Pericentriolar material and Centrioles
Arrangement of microtubules in centrosome: Microtubules (triplets)
Centrioles: in Pericentrolar material |
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Term
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Definition
| Extension of the cytoskeleton, Usually occur singly or in pairs, Long, whip-like, Only human example: sperm |
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Term
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Definition
| Extension of the cytoplasm, Numerous, Short, hair-like, Found in human respiratory tract. Helps to "sweep" out foreign particles. Ex. Cilia lining the trachea. |
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Term
| Arrangement of microtubules in cilium or flagellum |
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Definition
| Has Doublet microtubules inside. There's a central pair of microtubules. Plasma membrane and Basal body. |
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Term
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Definition
| Movement of liquid goes one way. The Cilium moves like a whip over the Cell surface with a Power stroke one way and a Recovery stroke the other. |
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Term
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Definition
| Like a rope at the gym. The movement of the cell goes opposite the Flagellar movement. The flagellar movement moves away from the cell surface. |
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Term
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Definition
| Contains rRNA and proteins. Free Ribosomes: synthesize proteins for use inside the cell. Attached Ribosomes: synthesize proteins for export out of the cell or membrane. |
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Term
| Details of ribosomal subunits |
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Definition
| Large subunit + Small subunit > Complete functional ribosome |
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Term
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Definition
| Details: Nuclear envelope, then Rough ER, which has Ribosomes, then Smooth ER |
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Term
| Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum ER |
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Definition
| Synthesizes: Fatty acids, Phospholipids, and Steroids. Detoxifies chemicals including alcohol, pesticides, and carcinogens |
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Term
| Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum ER |
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Definition
| Stores newly synthesized proteins. Modifies newly synthesized proteins. Prepares proteins for export out of the cell. |
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Term
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Definition
| Transport vesicle from rough ER goes in the Entry or cis face, medial cisterna, Transfer vesicles on outside, Exit or trans face, Secretory vesicles |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Autophagy- break down and recycles worn out cell parts. In WBC's they digest bacteria and other cellular invaders. Autolysis (necrosis)- destruction of the host cell; results from trauma. Have Digestive enzymes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Peroxisomes are structures that are similar in shape to lysosomes, but are smaller and contain enzymes that use oxygen to oxidize (break down) organic substances. |
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Term
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Definition
| barrel-shaped structures that destroy unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins by cutting long proteins into smaller peptides |
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Term
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Definition
| Details: Outer mitochondrial membrane, inner mitochondrial membrane, mitochondrial matrix, lined by Mitochondrial cristae, contain little Ribosomes, which contain little Enzymes |
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Term
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Definition
| Generate cellular energy in the form of ATP. Aerobic cellular respiration: C6H12O6 + O2 > CO2 + H20 36-38 ATP. Anaerobic cellular respiration: C6H12O6 > lactic acid + 2 ATP |
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Term
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Definition
| Details of the nucleus: Nucleus, Chromatin, Nuclear envelope, contain Nuclear pore, Polyribosome, Rough endoplasmic reticulum. |
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Term
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Definition
| The nucleus contains the cell's hereditary units, called genes, which are arranged in chromosomes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Step 1: Transcription. In the Nucleus (which inside the Cytoplasm, inside the Plasma membrane), the DNA turns into RNA, then through the Nuclear pore Step 1: Translation. The RNA has Ribosome and Protein. |
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Term
| Protein Synthesis: Transcription |
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Definition
| DNA's copied onto a strand of RNA to direct protein synthesis. Transcription occurs in the nucleus. Overview: DNA has promoter. A-U T-A G-C C-G |
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Term
| Protein Synthesis: Translation |
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Definition
| Translation - reading the mRNA nucleotide sequence to determine the amino acid sequence of the newly formed protein. Translation occurs in the nucleus. |
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Term
| Components of a ribosome and their relationship to the mRNA and protein during translation. |
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Definition
| mRNA goes into small subunit. Protein goes into Large subunit. The mRNA binding site is in the small subunit. The Large subunit has E, P, and A site. |
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Term
| Protein Synthesis During Trnascription |
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Definition
| Summary of movement of ribosome along mRNA. 1. Initiator tRNA attaches to a start codon. 2. Large and small ribosomal subunits join to forma functional ribosome and initiator tRNA fits into P site. 3. Anticodon of incoming tRNA pairs w/next mRNA codon at A site. 3. Amino acid on tRNA at P site forms a peptide bond w/amino acid at A site. 5. The two-peptide protein created from the formation of the peptide bond becomes attached to tRNA at A site. 6. Ribosomeshfits by one codon: tRNA previously at P site enters E site and is released from ribosome; tRNA previously at A site is now at P site. 7. Protein synthsis stops when the ribosome reaches stop codon on mRNA. |
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Term
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Definition
| a process by which cells reproduce themselves. Cell cycle |
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Term
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Definition
| 8-10 hours. Cell metabolically active; duplicates organelles and cytosolic components; centrosome replication begins. |
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Term
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Definition
| DNA replicated (8 hrs) Interphase |
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Term
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Definition
| Exit from cell cycle (nondividing cell) |
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Term
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Definition
| Cell growth continues; enzymes and other proteins and synthesized; centrosome replication complete. 4-6 hours |
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Term
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Definition
| Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase |
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Term
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Definition
| G1 Phase, S, G2 Phase. Centrosome: Centrioles, Pericentriolar material, Nucleolus, Nuclear envelope, Chromatin, Plasma membrane, Cytosol |
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Term
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Definition
| During prophase chromatin condenses into chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| Early, Centromere in center of Chromosome (two chromatids joined at centromere). Late, Kinetochore, Mitotic spindle (microtubules), Fragments of nuclear envelope. |
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Term
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Definition
| During metaphase centromeres of chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. |
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Term
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Definition
| During anaphase centromeres of chromosomes split and sister chromatids move toward opposite poles of the cell. |
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Term
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Definition
| Early, chromosomes are separated. Late, separate more and there's cleavage furrow. |
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Term
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Definition
| During telophase the mitotic spindle dissolves, chromosomes regain their chromatin appearance, and a new nuclear membrane forms. Has deeper Cleavage furrow. |
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Term
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Definition
| During cytokinesis a cleavage furrow deepens and eventually the cytoblasm of the parent cell fully splits. When this is complete, interphase begins. |
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Term
| anaphase>telophase>identical cells in interphase |
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Definition
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|
Term
| Events of the Somatic Cell Cycle |
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Definition
Interphase: period b/w cell divisions
G1 Phase: metabolically active cell duplicates most of its organelles and cytosolic components; replication of chromosomes begins. (Cells that remain in the G1 phase for a very long time, and possibly never divide again, are in G0)
S phase: replication of DNA and centrosomes
G2 Phase: Cell growth, enzyme and protein synthesis continue; replication of centrosomes complete.
Mitotic phase: Parent cell produces identical cells w/identical chromosomes
Mitosis: Nuclear division; distribution of 2 sets of chromosomes into separate nuclei.
Prophase: Chromatin fibers condense into paired chromatids; nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear
Metaphase: Centromeres of chromatid pairs line up at metaphase plate
Anaphase: Centromeres split; identical sets of chromosomes move to opposite poles of cell.
Telophase: Nuclear envelopes and nucleoli reappear; chromosomes resume chromatin form; mitotic spindle disappears
Cytokinesis: Cytoplasmic division; contractile ring forms cleavage furrow around center of cell, dividing cytoplasm into separate and equal portion |
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Definition
| 3 possible destinies: 1. Remain alive and functioning w/out dividing. 2. Grow and divide. 3. Die. |
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Term
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Definition
| As we age: Our cells gradually deteriorate in their ability function normally and in their ability to respond to environmental stresses. The numbers of our body cells decreases. We lose the integrity of the extracellular components of our tissues. |
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Term
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Definition
| molecules that are highly reactive w/other cellular structures because they contain unpaired electrons |
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