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| 18th century Britain- Britain interpreted Indians history and rewrote it in their own language in their own perspective. Used this interpretation to justify their intervention in India. |
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19th Century India-India subcontinent was once united & powerful, but then destroyed by the Mughals.
Secular, not focused on castes/location
Indians are homogenous
Want India to be unified |
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| Postcolonial or “subaltern” history |
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Rejects the idea that history can be categorized/represented; Europe is NOT the source of History
South Asia history is part of a global history, and did what every other country did—just at different times
Non-elite have their own historical view of how changes came about |
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movements advocating Hindu nationalism
Idea that Muslims are newcomers, so they don’t belong & should move to Pakistan, BUT there are still Muslims living throughout India
Hindu is not homogenous at first, but becomes more homogeneous as it modernizes due to the production of religious texts |
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leader of the muslim league
secular
vision is NOT of an islamic state |
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1st prime minister
Indian National Congress |
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| RSS- Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh |
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| 1920s Hindu nationalist party, responsible for ghandi assasination |
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| BJP- Bharatiya Janata Party |
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| challenged Indian national congress |
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Only muslim majority province in India,
Nehru wanted to keep it to maintain his vision of a secular India
He also had a personal connection as his family was from Kashmir
Tribal groups tried to take it over for Pakistan |
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ndonesia 1955; improve all nations of the world that were once colonized.
3rd world nations see a time when they won’t be the 3rd world anymore |
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song with dancing man and snake
Shows that India is becoming more cosmopolitan & less religious
Status not organized along linguistic/ethnic lines, everyone is Indian
promoted by Nehru as a symbol of India as a secular state |
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| 1966 Post Nehruvian State |
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| Haryana and Himachal Pradesh, 2 cities from East Punjab break off and become predominantly Hindu |
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Indian gov. military action to remove Sikhs from Golden Temple in Amritsar, Punjab.
Killed the leader of the Khalistan movement
Indira Ghandi led this movement |
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| Assasination of Indira Ghandi |
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| Because of her actions against Sikhs, she was murdered by her Sikh bodyguards |
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| thousands of sikhs are killed and the police don't intervene=genocide |
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India's National TV channel
1987 acting of the Ramayana-a Hindu story that played every Sunday; the nation stopped to watch |
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| The Ayodhya dispute/ Ram Janbhamoomi movement |
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Hindus try to reclaim Ayodhya
it had religious significance to hindus because it is the birthplace of Ram
There was a temple there, but it was destroyed in the 16th century and the Babri Masjid mosque was put in its place
1992- Babri Masjid is destroyed
unleashed violence against muslims,
BJP party allowed the violence to continue- brings up the question of the Governments responsibility to protect minorities
Ayodhya was divided- 1/3 stays Muslim, 2/3 becomes Hindu |
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train of Hindus set on fire, sparking a chain of Anti-Muslim riots
Chief Minister of Godhra, Narendra Modi, does not intervene in riots—“I’m not sorry"—Gov doesn’t seem to care at all |
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1st Prime Minister between 1947-1948
President of the Muslim League
Secular, wanted a constitution & parliament |
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| Pakistans Military in 1947 |
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Large % of the army, but small % of industry (no factories for guns, steel, iron ect.)
Led to a military state
not a lot of money for development |
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| 3 main challenges facing new state of Pakistan |
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Where should the capital be, eventually Islamabad
Splitting up the armed forces
Splitting up industry and resources |
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Very patriotic, felt they had made the ultimate sacrifice by leaving their homes for Pakistan
"refugees" |
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assassinated in 1951 by an Afghan
time of great unrest & military protection |
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| 1958-69; military ruler who gets rid of constitution |
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| Mohajir from Bombay; challenged by East Pakistan parties |
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| formed the Awami League (secular Bengali party) |
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| daughter of Ali Bhutto; first woman prime minister & first born on Pakistani soil |
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| Importance of the The Founding of Bangladesh |
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Challenges the idea that the partition is about religion; Bangladesh separated from Pakistan, although they are both Muslim-predominant states. Bangladesh is culturally unique enough that it want to be separate
Different languages: Pakistan speaks Urdu; Bangladesh speaks Bengali |
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first mughal emperor-1526,
followed by his son Humayun-1555 |
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1556-1605, centralizes the Indian subcontinent
marries Rajput princess, brings many different ethnic groups into his court
not very islamic in practice |
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| 1605-27, Akbar’s Rajput son, 1st indigenous Mughal emperor |
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| 1627-56, patron of arts & architecture, built Taj Mahal |
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| cluster of groups in the middle of India, thrived under Mughal’s & gained confidence to challenge |
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| Mughal empire is stretched too large to control all of its groups. Who becomes independent in the 1700's? |
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| Bengal (1717), Hyderabad (1724), Punjab (1726), and Awadh |
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| War of Austrian Succession & 7 Years War |
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| When the British defeat the French they have little competition and now have extensive system of trade |
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| Nawab of Bengal; attacks EIC to try to maintain control of Bengal profits |
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Battle in Bengal in 1757
EIC wins, installs their own “puppet “ruler to protect British interests |
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1764- Another battle in Bengal
British win again
maintains power |
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1765- GB gains right to collect all revenue from Bengal
East India never turns a profit from here on |
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| Americans not buying British goods, so the colonial relationship between India & GB changes; they need to sell finished goods from GB back to India, not just sell raw materials from India to GB |
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3 between 1767-1799
led by Hyder Ali, ruler of Mysore, & son Tipu Sultan (killed in Battle)
Battle of Seringapatnam: 1798, final straw, British take over |
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| ally with the British against Mysore & Marathas during anglo-mysore wars |
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| Regulating Acts of 1774 & 1783 |
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Many rich merchants returning to Britain from India, but no profits for the EIC after 1765—signals to Parliament corruption
Puts Parliament into direct advisory control of the East India Company |
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| Warren Hastings, 1772-1784 |
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Becomes gov in response to regulating acts
Has been in India since Battle of Plassey (1757); connection to India
1st Reg Act: Establishes Supreme Court in 3 presidency towns of Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras (all coastal towns, key for trade)
Meant to protect Indians from corrupt Europeans |
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| Hastings’ “right-hand man”; translates ancient manuscripts |
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| Hindu law book; Hastings sponsors the translation in 1776 |
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| Digest of Hindu Law on Contracts & Successions |
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| helps Hastings prove that British doesn’t have to “civilize” India; it already is |
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| are able to translate texts- become upper caste |
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| Asiatic Society of Bengal |
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brings together learned men to study ancient/ classic Indian texts; learn Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian
William Jones: Justice & co-founder of society |
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written in 1st millennium India
Bhagavad-gita is Hindu bible
Upanisads-philosophical texts considered to be an early source of Hindu religion.
Manusmriti- Law of Manu-> Dharma |
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| "Orientalism", Edward Said |
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| argued that Hastings separated Hindu/Muslim law to divide Indians & that European knowledge constructs everywhere else as “backwards”, which justifies colonial intervention |
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| charged with mapping entire Indian subcontinent |
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| painted landscape pictures of what India looked like |
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1785
9 year trial in Britain
he's acquitted but sets new precedent for governors with no attachment to india |
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1793-1815
british need revenue to expand their military to fight napoleon |
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| Lord Cornwallis/Lord Wellesley time period |
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1786-1805
20 year period of immense expansion & attempting to form relationships with Indian rulers |
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| Residency system/indirect rule |
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| Britain forms alliances with local princes who will not go to war with Britain/its allies, disarm, pay Britain for protection, and allow a British political agent in their court |
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| when Princes can’t pay, Britain must conquer them, which forces them to become beurocratic |
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1753-75, very prosperous under Mughals, raises an Army to battle the British, and refuses to pay British tribute
1765- loses territory but stays in power |
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Center of culture (music & poetry) and commerce
1764- British defeat rulers at Lucknow, they stay in power but are supposed to pay British |
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| British victory, leads to accession to Awadh in 1765 |
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1775-97, not interested in ruling/battles
Built Great Imambarah in Lucknow (great patron of arts) |
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after Asaf-Ud-Dowlah's death, his widows refused to pay the british the royalties he owed, went to mecca and gave his money to Rajacheyt Singh to stage a rebellion against the british
hastings imprisoned the widows |
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| Mysore leader; arranged Hyderabad & Marathas alliance |
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| First & Second Anglo Mysore wars |
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1767-69 & 1780-84
British lose because of the strong military alliance of Mysore with Hyderbad, Marathas, Madras and Arcot |
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| Third & Fourth Anglo Mysore wars |
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| British wins in 1799, Mysore defeated & carved, with Britain getting coastal areas (princely states give up |
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1775-82, 1803-05 & 1817-19
Marathas were the biggest threat to the British
Submit to agreements w/ British but don’t follow through, so conquered fully in 1818; 5 princely states formed
now clear you either ally with the british or be defeated by them |
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1793- part of Cornwalis Reforms
restructuring land in Bengal to better collect revenue; transforms peasants from nomadic to fixed to the land |
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Traditionally- land holders, responsible for collecting revenue and turning it over to district collector
under permanent settlement
Under new system, if Zamindar doesn’t pay ALL revenue, their land can be sold
Peasants become tenants, no longer have rights to their land
Zam. become more accountable |
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separates 3 branches: civil servants, military, and commercial merchants
gives a competitive salary to Civ. Serv. to prevent private trade/corruption |
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| Orientalists vs Anglicists |
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Cornwalis-Anglicist- use british ways and power, how can britain better rule india
Orientalists- Hastings- use Indian texts to make them self rule
both consider indian texts important |
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universal, enlightenment—liberty, property, rule of law, assembly, free-market, individual rights
Believes that an educated populace leads to civic behavior |
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| Interested in liberal idea in India; believe in rationalizing government to run more efficiently—collecting data to allocate resources |
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| John Stuart Mill, Jeremy Bentham, Thomas Babington Macaulay |
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Utilitarians
education leads to democracy
Eventually a self-regulating gov. will form
Seek to promote India, not exploit
Macaulay- "Its in English best interest to rule a more civilized nation than to rule over savages" 1833 |
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| Governor-General William Bentinck |
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1828-35
global depression, EIC is in debt
he makes decision to make sati illegal, wants to please england |
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| Wealth of Nations; invisible hand of capitalism, self-running markets |
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| partnered with British traders, very profitable (free trade) |
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| East India Company Charter |
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Abolished in 1813, with the exception of opium, gun powder, and tea (still monopolized until 1833)—free trade opens up, company loses its monopoly
1813: 2 mil pounds of cotton shipped from India to England
1830: 2 mil pounds of textiles shipped from England to India
o Demonstrates India is new a consumer market, not a producer |
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tried to convert natives to Christianity & reform society
1813: missionaries allowed (unsuccessful), but bring light to inhumanity |
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educated in British schools & worked with British gov; used religious texts to justify social reform & women’s rights
Desired a new kind of Hindu liberalism |
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| Three liberal reform campaigns: 1820-1850 |
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education
ending monopoly
abolition of sati
during this time, Burma, Punjab, Kashmir, came under British control and the remainder of Awadh by 1856 |
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| David Washbrook’s two faces of colonialism |
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Modernization & liberal reform is the goal of the British—Britain becomes more British
Indians resist & become more set in their traditional ways—India becomes more Indian |
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| Karl Marx coins the 1857 mutiny as the First War of Indian Independence; Indians rebelling because they see their raw materials being taken (term used by Indians 50 years later) |
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| Contradictions of Britain raising army: |
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Military was paid for by peasant land tax, but peasants make up the Army
Military made Indians much wealthier (b/c they would buy a lot of goods) & also armed them, so set the stage for a rebellion
Upper-echelon of both Indians & British got wealthy; peasants got poorer, but they also got guns |
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rebel against the Zamindars & British in 19th century Bengal
1831 |
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| Faraizi group; organized militant rebellions against Zamindars, refusing to pay taxes & interest. Was concerned about British influence on Muslims & called for social justice |
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were a nomadic group before British colonization, but b/c of Permanent Settlement must stay in 1 place
British demand they help build railroads & use their livestock to feed builders
Revolt in 1955 after 2 generations of watching their economic growth decline b/c of British rule |
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| 1793-1900, peasant & tribal revolts were more organized than British thought: |
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These groups have some knowledge of how to redress their grievances before they resorted to violence
The line between crime & insurgency were very vague (protestors arrested)
Peasants had some element of class consciousness & forms of affiliating with one another against other groups
Fairly clear lines of communication among rebelling groups
Believable rumors spread; plausibility triggers results |
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major force in Punjab
no castes, sacred texts, believe in holy figures that don’t embody God |
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Annexed by BEIC
very prosperous, many different cultures and religions
buffer zone between afghanistan and india |
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consolidates a Sikh image
1675-1708
adopts turban to differ from hindus |
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politically unites Punjab, captures Lahore & expands; agriculture thrives & it is very prosperous, thus desirable to British
1800-punjab is fragmented and British are able to take over |
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manage collection of revenue (basically zamindars)
armed, and kill revenue collectors when they come |
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no political power, Newabs become patrons of the arts and don't pay revenue to the British
No taxes EVER paid, so British annex |
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Sparked by a rumor of greased gun powder cartridges
Broke out in Meerut (right outside of Delhi) |
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princely states who declare they’re done with the British—Monsoon until Oct. prevents new British troops
1857 |
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ruler reinstalled who was ousted by British
1857 |
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| 1858: Queen’s Proclamation |
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Indian princes are “equal” to the British monarchy, even though realistically they’re not
State begins to incorporate India into British monarchy
New social hierarchy
No extension of British territory in India
EIC disbanded; British parliament reorganizes & modernizes India; decide that some Indians can control themselves
Governor-General replaced by a viceroy
• Lord Canning is the first |
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a ritual of incorporating different rulers into a feudal or monarchial order by granting a khelat and offering some kind of tribute
• Granting of titles—raja, nawab, etc.
• Drawing from Mughal rituals
• Cloth, clothes, coins, gold, jewelry, animals, etc. |
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| 1861- Queen knights Indian Princes |
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| 1876- Queen Victoria named Empress of India |
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| brings indian states within aristrocratic control of the Queen |
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increase surveilance over indians
more modern, b/c previous censuses were only for rev. collection
Overall goal was to modernize India—turns it into a hierarchical, caste-based society |
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tried to “fix” the problems w/ the Census,
he thought Caste = employment & also asked people's religion |
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Dullets realize they are the most numerous
recruitment for military changes, reorganized by caste
associated caste with certain character traits
the "martial races"- sikhs, gurkhas, pathans
connected muslims and hindus to others across india |
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easier for british to move goods to market and foreign goods from ports
move troops to control India better
emphasized their technological prowess, showed what they could build (tracks up steep mountains)
british didn't think Indians would have interest in travelling but it was very popular
1880-80 million
1900-200 mil
1920- 500million |
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Abolition of Sati Act (1829), Widow Remarriage Act (1856), Child Marriage Act (1891)
Basically only apply to high-caste women with property, so more symbolic than anything |
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| The creation of the “new” woman: |
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Should not be ignorant, superstitious, or irrational
Tradition is not abandoned; still seen as integral to Indian society. Women are responsible for protecting tradition in the home
Spiritual realm: should be pious
Material realm: husbands can expect a traditional wife at home, but outside the home she will be more western
Education: woman should be educated to teach children & make a better home/family
British imagined it would liberate them from home (the opposite) |
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woman Brahmin, learns Sanskrit, converts to Christianity, trains widows. late 1800's
struggles with how to be pious in a world without equality, angry that christianity does not allow women priesthood |
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Muslim periodical writer; new vision that women are not restricted to housework
early 1900's |
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| Devadasis- "temple dancers" |
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| british thought of them as prostitutes |
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root out devadasis, restore temple back to its religiosity
Idea is that dancer women will find husbands therefore they won't need to dance to make money, and they won't disrupt other marriages and won't be thought of as whores |
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