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History
History 138
183
History
Undergraduate 2
12/15/2010

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Term
Scientific Revolution
Definition
– period in which new ideas in physics, astronomy, biology, anatomy, and other sciences led to a rejection of doctrines that had prevailed starting in Ancient (Copernicus, Kepler, Newton, Galileo)
Term
Francis Bacon
Definition
Key figure in the scientific revolution, agreed that experience should form the basis of knowledge
Term
Royal Society of London
Definition
promoted experiments on the sciences of natural things and facilitated scientific dissemination of findings
Term
Isaac Newton
Definition
wrote Principia and was one of the leading thinkers in the early periods of scientific discovery
Term
Mechanical Philosophy
Definition
used mathematics to explain natural phenomena
Term
Carolus Linnaeus
Definition
wrote Systema Naturae which attempted to clssify every plant and animal into a rational system
Term
Taxonomy
Definition
Practice and science of organization of organisms
Term
Natural History, Natural historian, Naturalist
Definition
scientific research of plants and animals leaning towards observation rather than experimentation
Term
Natural Philosopher
Definition
study of nature and the physical universe, was a precursor of natural sciences
Term
Mark Catesby
Definition
Wrote the first illustrated guide to America's plants and animals, generated interest in science.
Term
Benjamin Franklin
Definition
made of the most important contributors to science, electricity and the Royal Society. Proposed the AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY - highlighted science alongside application in the APS
Term
American Philosophical Society
Definition
established by Benjamin Franklin, one of the early scientific societies
Term
Louisiana Purchase
Definition
US bought a large portion of land from France. Sparked interest in land surveying which eventually led to the development of plant collection and biology and study of animals
Term
Lewis and Clark Expedition
Definition
first overland expedition undertaken by the US to the Pacific to gain an accurate sense of resources exchanged in the Louisiana purchase.
Term
Thomas Jefferson
Definition
True supporter of science - debunked the degeneration hypothesis, made the Louisiana Purchase, made exploration scientific and technicl
Term
Notes on the State of Virginia
Definition
book written by Thomas Jefferson which debunked the degeneration hypothesis
Term
Declaration of Independence
Definition
ideas which inspired the founding fathers were from the enlightenment
Term
Charles Wilson Peale
Definition
developed one of the first private museums in the US as a place for public education and entertainment. Lewis and Clark sent some of the less scientific items discovered on their trip to Peale to put on display
Term
Benjamin Smith Barton
Definition
VP of the American Philosophical Society, joined LC but could not make the entire trip. Did not get along well with Peale and did not disseminate his findings very well - EXAMPLE of a professor that failed in terms of publishing but could still pursue science.
Term
Frederick Pursh
Definition
German American Botanist who worked for Barton and traveled farther than him and collected and studied plants. Contributed greatly to NAmerican Botany. Took specimans to Europe where he started evaluated plants - EXAMPLE of inadequacy of scientific institutions and instruments in the US
Term
US Coast Survey
Definition
founded by Rudolph Hassler as a scientific institution to survey the east coast and collect plants
Term
Alexander Dallas Bache
Definition
West Point grad and grandson of Franklin, supervised the Coast Survey after Hassler and also promoted an American scientific culture with the AAAS and the National Academy of sciences. Helped make science a profession and made it national. Coast survey succeeded because of commercail interest, military use, funding from congress, the advancements in transportation, manufacturing, and industry
Term
Smithsonian Institution
Definition
founded for the increase and diffusion of knowledge by James Smithson and trusted to Joseph Henry who served as the first Secretary
Term
American Association for the Advancement of Science
Definition
reformation of the association of american geologists and naturalists – a general society where it accepted scientists of all fields, notable presidents like franz boas, millikan and asa gray
Term
National Academy of Sciences
Definition
igned by Lincoln, notable members such as Bache and Agassiz – created to centralize science in the US but did not
Term
Manifest Destiny
Definition
belief that the United States was destined to expand across the North American continent
Term
Amira Phelps
Definition
Natural Philosophy for beginners – science for families, introduced science to the public through the form of a textbook
Term
Harper's Weekly
Definition
– one of the science publications which spread science to the public
Term
American Journal of Science and Arts
Definition
longest running scientific journal published by Benjamin Silliman. Editors included Asa gray and Louis Agassiz
Term
Benjamin Silliman
Definition
- founded and edited American Journal of Science and was one of the corporate members of NAS
Term
Crystal Palace
Definition
Cast iron and glass building exhibition highlighting the technology of the Industrial Revolution
Term
Spencer F. Baird
Definition
hired by Joseph Henry as Assistant Secretary at the smithsonian, studied ichthyology (fishes) and ornithology (birds). Contributed to the growth of natural history and government expeditions
Term
The Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia
Definition
first World Fair to showcase US technology and advancements in science
Term
Louis Aggasiz
Definition
biologist, polygentic views (scientific racism) in contrast to Darwin’s views on race. Included beliefs and views of religion in his studies. – first successful model of grad school. Gave people the fish to think about. LECONTE STUDIED WITH AGASSIZ
Term
Asa Gray
Definition
most important botanist of the 19th century, worked with Darwin
Term
Museum of Comparative Zoology
Definition
zoology museum at Harvard – founded by Agassiz a zoologist (illustrates the variety and comparative relationships of animal life)
Term
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology
Definition
natural history museum at UCB founded by Annie Alexander which became a center for authority for the study of vertebrate biology and evolution on the West Coast. Largest collection of mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles.
Term
Joseph Grinnell
Definition
director of the museum of vertebrate zoology and wanted to make collecting more scientifically valuable
Term
Annie Alexander
Definition
Natrualist, Philanthropist, and a saavy business woman - – established the museum of vertebrate zoology.
Term
American Colleges
Definition
Harvard modeled on Euorpean colleges and universities, taught the classical curriculum and science, lots of poor people
Term
Research University
Definition
associated with German universities. Professors were responsible for research and training
Term
John Hopkins University
Definition
one of the early research universities. Daniel Coit Gilman. Made significant contributions and advancements in medicine
Term
The PH.D machine
Definition
specialization and the growth of research universities
Term
The Morrill Act
Definition
decentralized and unregulated markets allowed for the creation of land-grant colleges, initially for agriculture and used science as an aid to agriculture. Became a turning point for science in the government and allowed for the establishment of the University of California
Term
University of California
Definition
university in California which greatly contributed to the growth of science in the West Coast – initially created the Agriculture, Mining, and Mechanical Arts College
Term
Phoebe Apperson Hearst
Definition
philanthropist and major benefactor of UC Berkeley during its period of growth
Term
John & Joseph LeConte
Definition
- first faculty members of the UC, and both made significant contributions to the UC research system and set the stage for the boom of science and research in California.
Term
Benjamin Ide Wheeler
Definition
UC President (1899-1919), established stability and faculty appointments and raised the national profile of the UC. UC went through period of greatest growth through him and he raised standards
Term
US Geological Survey
Definition
scientific agency which studies the landscapes, natural resources, and natural hazards of the US. – Clarence King, succeeded by John Weslley Powell
Term
Clarence King
Definition
director of the US Geological Survey - studied math and geophysics and mining geology with a practical emphasis - wanted more people with scientific backgrounds
Term
Geology
Definition
USGS - classifying land, identifying resources, mapping practical theory of evolution, fossial early earth study
Term
Clinton Hart Merriam
Definition
lifelong naturalist. Bureau of Biological Survey - made distribution studies
Term
Naturalist
Definition
science not intermixed with religious or personal views. Hypothesis be tested only by reference to natural causes and events
Term
American Ornithologist's Union
Definition
scientific society for ornithology in the US - branch of zoology that involves the study of birds.
Term
Bureau of Biological Survey
Definition
Clinton Hart Merriam (ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY) morphs into this survey as he realizes more than just birds are important – dedicated to the management of fish, wildlife, and habitats.
Term
Life Zones
Definition
developed by C. Hart Merriam in 1889 as a means of describing areas with similar plant and animal communities.
Term
Edmund Beecher Wilson
Definition
pioneering American zoologist and geneticist, wrote The Cell From morphology to experimental physiology
Term
Ross Granville Harrison
Definition
Experimental Embryology at JHU. Tissue grafting and culture – HANGING DROP METHOD.
Term
Marine Biological Laboratory
Definition
international research and education center in biology, biomedicine and ecology – SPENCER F. BAIRD. From morphology to experimental physiology
Term
Embryology
Definition
a science which is about the development of an embryo from the fertilization of the ovum to the fetus stage. One of the new disciplines during the 20th c.
Term
Experimental Embryology
Definition
a branch of embryology developed by Ross Granville Harrison used in genetic and embryo manipulations – tissue grafts
Term
Cytology
Definition
– a branch of life science that studies cells in terms of structure, function, and chemistry. Developed through emphasis of form and function and microscopes
Term
Genetics
Definition
the science of genes, heredity, and variation in organisms. One of the specialties that emerged from major life sciences from 1880 to 1920.
Term
American Society for Naturalists
Definition
oldest professional societies dedicated to the biological sciences in North America. Publishes American Naturalist. (Core for biology (embryology, heredity, evolution)
Term
Lick Observatory
Definition
world’s first permanently occupied mountain-top observatory
Term
Henry Rowland
Definition
- early American physics – pushed for PURE SCIENCE at JHU –science which has no immediate application.
Term
John Wesley Powell
Definition
US geologist and director of major scientific and cultural institutions. Explored the American West, director of ethnology at Smithsonian (paleontological and stratigraphic studies) ethnographic studies. USGS
Term
Albert A. Michelson
Definition
Michelson-Morley experiment (speed of light is constant) proposed that moving against light is slower and disproved it (used an interferometer), evidence against the existence of a luminiferous ether
Term
Luminiferous Ether
Definition
medium for the propagation of light
Term
Michelson inferometer
Definition
used by Michelson in the famous Michelson-Morley Experiments
Term
Michelson Morely Experiment
Definition
moving against light is not slower than with light, disproved the evidence for a luminiferous ether using an interferometer
Term
Atomic structure
Definition
part of the shift from classical physics to theories of relativity and quantum mechanics
Term
Progressivism
Definition
political attitude favoring or advocating changes or reform – shaped by disinterested expertise – science to fight corruption, pro-science to fight corruption – emphasis on applied science
Term
Sociology
Definition
study of society
Term
Albion Small
Definition
founded the Department of Sociology at University of Chicago, influential in the establishment of sociology as a valid field of academic study
Term
Psychology
Definition
science and art of explaining and changing human and non-human animal mental processes and behaviors
Term
American Journal of Sociology
Definition
established by Albion Small, oldest scholarly journal of sociology – distinguish between popular and scientific sociology
Term
James McKeen Cattell
Definition
standardization and mental testing for applied psychology, first professor of psych at UPenn, publisher of Science, and Popular Science
Term
Anthropology
Definition
study of humanity
Term
Franz Boas
Definition
father of American anthropology – doctorate in physics and post-doc in geography, applied the scientific method to the study of human cultures – academic discipline (fieldwork, evolutionary hierarchy)
Term
Cultural Relativism
Definition
rejected that culture was predetermined by biological instincts and learning dominant over instinct, culture could not be explained in biological terms and could only be explained by the culture of the people of study
Term
William Osler
Definition
one of the first newly recruited doctors, emphasized bedside teaching, focusing on the patient and lab training. Introduced internships and residency
Term
Abraham Flexner
Definition
– worried that people would join med school just as a status symbol, wanted to raise academic standards and reduce the number of doctors in California.
Term
Pan-American Expedition
Definition
huge technology exposition in Buffalo, New York highlighting and displaying US power, especially electricity. Also the location of McKinley’s assassination
Term
X-Ray
Definition
displayed at the Pan-American Exposition, however was not used to help McKinley after being shot
Term
Bacteriology
Definition
emphasized by William Osler, study of bacteria and microorganisms
Term
President William McKinley
Definition
assassinated and his treatment was an example of the insufficiencies of the US medical knowledge and system during the turn of the century.
Term
Flexner Report
Definition
report published by Abraham Flexner which examined 155 current medical schools in an effort to standardize medical education and raise the bar to the level of the top tier John Hopkin’s University. Raised the quality of medical education while reduced the amount of physicians serving disadvantaged communities. Elitism
Term
William Henry Welch
Definition
studied with Koch, instrumental in the organization of medical schools in the US, emphasized laboratory training and helped in the Journal of experimental Medicine
Term
Johns Hopkins Hospital
Definition
led the way in the medical revolution of the United States during the turn of the century, created systematic application of the scientific method in medical education and sought to eliminate schools that didn’t follow this model Council on Medical Education, American Medical Association
Term
Technology
Definition
long history of assuming boundaries between science and technology. As time progressed the distinction has blurred.
Term
Samuel Morse
Definition
American contributor to the invention of a single-wire telegraph system based on European telegraphs. Morse Code. Persuaded Congress to grant him money to develop Morse Code – example of the blurring of science and technology
Term
Thomas Alva Edison
Definition
the long distance transmission of written messages without physics transport of letters. Used for Morse Code
•Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931) - symbolized era’s marriage of creativity and economic incentive. Had little formal education yet still established Menlo Park’s invention factory. Perfect example of the independent inventor. Acquired thousands of patents and made countless inventors. Inventor turned capitalist
Term
Menlo Park
Definition
set up by Edison as his home and research laboratory. Major site of his research and where he produced his countless patents
Term
West Orange Laboratory
Definition
another laboratory and factory complex set up by Edison as a site for research and development along with the production of his patents
Term
Nikola Tesla
Definition
inventor as genius. He lived alone, handsome, well-dressed. Electric power transmission. “Be alone – that is the secret to innovation: be alone, that is when ideas are born”. Kept his distance from bureaucratic organizations and was focused on pure invention.
Term
Wright Brothers
Definition
nonprofessional inventors (focused on a single invention and had regular employment). Had different problem-choosing styles than independents who had to choose what to do based upon income. At first had a difficult time getting support from government but this changed after test flights. The Wright Company
Term
Elmer Sperry
Definition
- Created the gyrocompass – similar to a gyroscope. Expertise and remarkable range of applications on the principle of feed-back control. Never strayed from invention UNLIKE Edison
Term
Gyrocompass
Definition
Used to find true north by using an electrically powered, fast spinning gyroscope wheel and other frictional forces in order to exploit the basics physical laws and the rotation of the Earth – exteremely useful on ships or submarines
Term
Sperry Gyroscope Company
Definition
major American equipment and electronics company created by Sperry to produce his gyrostabilizer and gyrocompass.
Term
Military Innovation Complex
Definition
the merging of invention/technology/government affairs for militaristic goals.
Term
Naval Consulting Board
Definition
- established by Josephus Daniels (saw that war would be a war of machines – amassed civilian machine experts and omitted pure science researchers) to “provide machinery and facilities for utilizing the natural inventive genius of Americans to meet the new conditions of warfare. Some members include Elmer Sperry. (FAILED EXPECTATIONS and did not make a considerable impact)
Term
National Research Council
Definition
- organized in 1916 in response to the increased need for scientific and technical services caused by World War I. Recommended that US scientists be brought together to work on these problems George Ellery Hale
Term
Robert Millikan
Definition
headed a mini dedicated research project as part of the Naional Research Council – made great advances by using what was known about theoretical physics and identifying submarine devices – they bere able to use their highly specialized knowledge to tackle problems better than inventors could.
Term
Patents
Definition
a well designed patent covered as much territory as possible without infringing on another’s property basic vs dependent – dependent patents were valueless unless the owner also owned or had access to the basic patent. For most invention based companies, their principal assets were patents
Term
AT&T
Definition
- branch of the Bell Telephone company, started on the basis of holding “potentially valuable patents” – focused on patent acquisition.
Term
Frank Jewett
Definition
- hired by Vail to head up the engineering department of AT&T. aimed to make long-distance communication affordable
Term
GE research Laboratory
Definition
- advanced model of German research universities and lead the way for the promotion of independent research and also industrial and academic research. Set the standard for pure science and industry.
Term
Willis R Whitney
Definition
- lead mover of the development of GE research laboratory – sacrificed his career as a research scientist to lead others – tried to establish a university-like atmosphere at GE laboratory
Term
William Coolidge
Definition
Americna physicist who made major contributions to X-ray machines. Director of the GE research laboratory and VP of the corporation ductile tungsten incandescent light bulb.
Term
Irving Langmuir
Definition
American chemist and physicist, contributed to the development of the lewis structure and his study of lightbulbs
Term
Henry Ford
Definition
- prominent American industrialist, founder of FORD MOTOR COMPANY, sponsor of the development of the assembly line technique of mass production – solved the challenge of building affordable vehicles – focused on invention and innovation – reluctant to make changes to the Model T and unskilled workers led to its decline, turnover rate of 380%.
Term
Frederick Winslow Taylor
Definition
American mechanical engineer who sought to improve industrial efficiency.
Term
Taylorism
Definition
– systematize workers, saw workers as simply parts of machines, did time studies, increase production = increase labor = increase standard of labor SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
Term
Fordism
Definition
eponymous manufacturing system designed to spew out standardized, low-cost goods and afford its workers decent enough wages to buy them – assembly line.
Term
River Rouge Plant
Definition
Ford Motor Company automobile complex in Michigan – Ford men became known for designing the best special-purpose machines in the world, laying them out along with their materials- handling network for a smooth flow of parts.
Term
“one best way”
Definition
Taylor’s thought process in developing his scientific management of time and motion study.
Term
Lillian (1878-1972) and Frank Gilbreth
Definition
pioneers in the field of industrial engineering – interest in time and motion study – combined a synthesis of psychology and scientific management – believed that Taylorism fell short when it came to managing the human element on the shop floor
Term
Progressive Era
Definition
- period of social activism and reform that flourished from the 1890s to the 1920s – expose and undercut political machines and bosses. Woman’s suffrage, reformed medicine, business, church policies. CULTURE CLASH – shift from the nation’s Protestant establishment – Jazz, deep cleavage between the traditional American South and the industrial and urban North. More people lived in the city than in the country. Jazz age – speakeasy, the tabloid press, and the sexually free flapper. Independence of women.
Term
Charles Darwin
Definition
wrote On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. Suggested that all organisms were related to one another at some early branching of the family tree. Presented a mechanism about HOW species changed over time. SAW NO EVIDENCE OF AN INTERVENING INTELLIGENCE – contradicted natural science and theology. Struck directly at certain fundamental Judeo-Christian beliefs
Term
William Jennings Bryan
Definition
argued vigourously in favor of a fundamentalist approach to the bible. Believed that Darwinian evolution was the one great evil that fed modernism, urbanism, sensationalism , and more other transgressions that seemed to be crowding in upon the faithful. RATIONALE FOR warfare “Teaching of evolution as a fact instead of theory caused the students to lose faith in the bible”
Term
Clarence Darrow (
Definition
defender of the evolutionists – argued that the Butler act was in clear violation of the principle of the separation of church and state. Also argued that Darwinism and the scientific sotry of creation is not in conflict with any story of creation, while the bible in many ways is in conflict with every known science.
Term
The SCopes Trial
Definition
an American legal case in 1925 in which high school biology teacher John Scopes was accused of violating the state’s Butler Act which made it unlawful to each evolution.
Term
Butler Act
Definition
prohibited public school teachers to deny the biblical account of man’s origin
Term
John Scopes (
Definition
asked to teach the theory of evolution in one of his classes.
Term
Dudley Field Malone
Definition
attorney, politician, liberal activist. One of the lawyers who joined with Clarence Darrow to defend John T. Scopes in the famous “Monkey Trial”. Responding to Bryan’s argument against admitting scientific testimony, Malone gave the greatest speech of the trial in defense of academic freedom. I have never learned anything from any man who agreed with me
Term
Asa Gray
Definition
lifelong correspondence with Darwin. Arranged the first US Edition of On the Origin of Species and negotiated royalties on Darwin’s behalf. Advises Darwin that variation is not random.
Term
Puritans
Definition
Prosperous, middle class whom were eager to challenge the authority of the king and aristocracy. Had strong work ethics and promoted the rise of technology.
Term
Lamarckism
Definition
– the idea that an organism can pass on characteristics that it acquired during its lifetime to its offspring
Term
Huxley-Wilberforce debate
Definition
a heated exchange in which Wilberforce supposedly asked Huxley whether it was through his grandfather or his grandmother that he claimed his descent from a monkey. Huxley replied that he would not be ashamed to have a monkey for his ancestor, but he would be ashamed to be connected with a man who used his great gifts to obscure the truth. Relation between science and religion and the intellectual development of Europe with relation to Darwin’s theory.
Term
Thomas Hunt Morgan
Definition
American embryologist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology. In his fly room, he was able to demonstrate that genes are carried on chromosomes and are the mechanical basis of heredity. Linked the laws of inheritance to the behavior of chromosomes during fertilization. DROSOPHILA
Term
Francis Galton (1822-1911)
Definition
– Hereditary Genius (1869) – Modern society allows the survival of the unfit.
Eugenics – program to improve the character of the race by selective breeding – figurehead of powerful social movement.
Term
Genetics
Definition
discipline of biology and the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms Mendel
Term
Eugenics
Definition
– flourished in most developed countries, enthusiasm for science, coincided with a growing interest in heredity.
Term
American Eugenics
Definition
– opposed to the immigration of inferior races, progressive reformers Charles Davenport
Term
Charles Davenport
Definition
– prominent American eugenicist and biologist.
Term
Cold Spring Harbor
Definition
private, non-profit institution with research programs focusing on cancer, neurobiology, plant genetics, genomics, and bioinformatics. Home of the Eugenics Record Office
Term
Carrie Buck
Definition
) – plaintiff in the United States Supreme Court case Buck vs Bell and was ordered to undergo compulsory sterilization for purportedly being feeble minded. EUGENICS
Term
Ernest Lawrence
Definition
American physicist Cyclotron, uranium-isotope separation – rise of physics at bekrleey. Radiation Laboratory
Term
J Robert Oppenheimer
Definition
– theoretical physicist and professor of physics at UC Berkeley “father of the atomic bomb”
Term
Radiation Laboratory
Definition
multidisciplinary, team science. Ernest Lawrence – employed scientists to work on nuclear physics research
Term
Cyclotron
Definition
particle accelerator used as a source of high=energy beams for nuclear physics experiements, treat cancer
Term
TVA
Definition
ROOSEVELT - federally owned corporation in the United States created by congressional charter to provide navigation, flood control, electricity generation, fertilizer manufacturing, and economic development in the Tennessee valley. Provided much of the electricity needed for the uranium enrichment at Oak Ridge, Tennessee for the MANHATTAN PROJECT
Term
Arthur Morgan
Definition
- chairman of the Tennessee Valley Authority from 1933 until 1938. Promoted community living while building dams and providing power.
Term
David Lilienthal
Definition
one of the directors of TVA. Butted heads with Morgan. Morgan felt it both ethical and practical to use the existing private power companies in the Tennessee Valley to distribute TVA power. Lilienthal favored Federal government control of the power and perhaps working through rural power co-operatives. Had part of the AEC as well. Pioneers of civilian control in the American atomic energy program.
Term
AEC
Definition
fostered research in nuclear energy and its military uses. US government establishes the AEC to claim TOTAL control of Atomic energy research – foster and control the peace time development of atomic science and technology.
Term
Office of Science Research and Development
Definition
- agency of the US fed government created to coordinate scientific research for military purposes during WWII.
Term
Vannevar Bush
Definition
named first chair of the Office of Science Research and Development and was the first science advisor to the president. Had a role in establishing the NSF. Pushed for pure science and that science was necessary for society
Term
Science of the Endless Frontier
Definition
written by Vannevar Bush, presented to the president which said that basic research was: “the peacemaker of technological progress” and “New products and new processes do not appear full-grown.” Fund scientific research, nation would reap rich dividends in the form of better health care, a more vigourous economy, and a stronger national defense.
Term
National Science Foundation
Definition
a foundation run by Harley Kilgore and Vannevar Bush. Kilgore tried to use this for a good social purpose. Distributed on geographical basis – patents go to the government – science for social reform while Vannevar Bush saw no explicit social purpose in it. Patents go to the investigators and saw science as an inherent good, and necessary for society.
Term
Free Speech Movement
Definition
–student protest which took place during the 1964 – 1965 academic year at UCBerkeley under the leadership of Mario Savio, Brian Turner and some other students. In protests unprecedented at the time, students insisted that the university administration lift the ban on on-campus political activities and acknowledge the students’ right to free speech and academic freedom
Term
Mario Savio
Definition
American political activist and a key member in the Berkeley Free Speech Movement. “put your bodies upon the gears
Term
Counterculture
Definition
technology as the cause of problems. What happens when you put the system first
Term
NASA
Definition
federal expenditures for R&D more than doubled to $9 billion/year with funds going towards NASA and the space race against the Soviet Union. Increasing trend of companies and government increasing their R&D spending.
Term
Thomas Hunt Morgan
Definition
JHU – Established and standardized Drosophila - geneticist – Mendelian inheritance – Demonstrated that genes are carried on chromosomes and are the mechanical basis of heredity. These discoveries formed the basis of heredity
Term
Drosophila
Definition
– genus of small flies heavily used in research in genetics and is a common model organism in developmental biology. “Discovered” by Thomas Hunt Morgan
Term
Model Organism
Definition
– a non-human species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in the organism model will provide insight into the workings of other organisms – short life-cycle, techniques for genetic manipulation, methods of transformation, nonspecialist living requirements.
Term
Carnegie Institute of Washington
Definition
funded by Andrew Carnegie for the application of knowledge to improve human kind. Daniel Coit Gilman – had individual grants in the biological sciences and was the first large-scale sponsorship of academic science.
Term
Weakness of Classical Genetics
Definition
did not explain the nature of the genetic code – assumed the existence of genes
-biology needed to be like physicists who often times looked down on them as “stamp collectors”
Term
George Wells Beadle
Definition
American scientist in the field of genetics who discovered the role of genes in regulating biochemical events within cells. Exposing bread mold Neurospora crassa to x-rays causing mutations. Showed that these mutations caused changes in specific enzymes involve din metabolic pathways. Direct link between genes and enzymatic reactions “one gene, one enzyme” hypothesis
Term
Neurospora
Definition
– used by beadle to show that mutations in genes caused changes in specific enzymes. Link between one gene, and one enzyme. Brought together genetics and biochemisty which was previously separated.
Term
Rockefeller Foundation
Definition
– most influential supporter of the life sciences during first half of the 20th century. The support peaked during the interwar period – essentially steered and drove biological research and saw biological progress as social progress and supported molecular biology
Term
Cold Spring Harbor
Definition
molecular biology – Max Delbruck – Phage Group
Term
Max Delbruck
Definition
- saw that Quantum mechanics might apply to other fields of science – worked with the Rockefeller Foundation and created a new way to do biology. American Phage Group – Phage course Cold Spring Harbor
Term
Phage Course
Definition
Phage Group was a informal network of biologists centered around Max Delbruck that contributed heavily to bacterial genetics and the origins of molecular biology in the mid-20th century. The phage course was a course taught by Delbruck and others for young biologists to inspire the fundamentals of phage biology and experimentation with a focus on the math and physics oriented approach to biology.
Term
One Gene, One Enzyme
Definition
the idea that genes act through the production of enzymes, with each gene responsible for producing a single enzyme that in turn affects a single step in a metabolic pathway. Proposed by George Beadle.
Term
James Watson
Definition
molecular biologist and zoologist best known as one of the co-discoverers of the structure of DNA with Francis Crick. Together with Crick symbolized different disciplinary contributions to molecular biology. – member of the American Phage Group – Genetic Determinist – the belief that genes determine physical and behavioral phenotypes
Term
Francis Crick
Definition
Structural chemistry; x-ray diffraction patterns. Proposed “central dogma” – DNA –RNA – protein – theoretical neuroscience. Central dogma – deals with the detailed residue-by-residue transfer of sequential information. It states that information cannot be transferred back from protein to either protein or nucleic acid – once information gets into protein, it can’t flow back to nucleic acid.
Term
Rosalind Franklin
Definition
British biophysicist, physicist, X-Ray crystallographer who made critical contributions to the understanding of the fine molecular structures of DNA, RNA, viruses, coal, and graphite. X-Ray diffraction images of DNA
Term
The Double Helix
Definition
Watson’s account of his collaboration with Crick – Harvard was ordered not to publish book. Sexist towards Rosalind Franklin. Scandal that they used Rosalind Franklin’s work without her permission. It was a ruthless, competitive account of scientists not characteristic of Cambridge in the 1950s, justified W&C’s use of Franklin’s unpublished data. Detracts from giving credit to Franklin’s x-ray photography of the DNA helix
Term
Genentech
Definition
founded by venture capitalist Robert Swanson and biochemist Herbert Boyer – considered to have founded the biotech industry. Boyer is a pioneer in the field of recombinant DNA technology. Commercialized biology
Term
Diamond vs Chakrabarty
Definition
case dealing with whether genetically modified organisms can be patented. Originallyy his patent was rejected under grounds that he was not allowed to patent a live-organism. However in a 5-4 ruling, the court ruled in favor of Chakrabarty and upheld the patent
Term
RDNA
Definition
orm of artificial DNA that is created by combining two or more sequences that would not normally occur together through the process of gene splicing – to code for or alter different traits for a specific purpose, such as antibiotic resistance.
Term
Bayh-Dohl Act
Definition
US legislation dealing with intellectual property arising from federal government-funded research. It gave US universities, small businesses and non-profits intellectual property control of their inventions and other intellectual property that resulted from such funding.
Term
Cohen-Boyer rDNA cloning
Definition
part of genetic engineering – advancement in the manipulation of an organism’s DNA
Term
The Human Genome Project
Definition
international scientific research project with a primary goal of determining the sequence of chemical base pairs which make up DNA and to identify and map the approximately 20,000-25,000 genes of the human genome from both a physical and functional standpoint. Sequence nucleotides and develop databases to store the information. Address ethical, legal, and social issues, sequence model organisms. Francis Sellers Collins – American physician-geneticist, noted for his landmark discoveries of diseas genes and his leadership of the Human Genome project
Term
Celera
Definition
- in the 1ate 1990s – celera (private company) initiated its own effort to obtain the sequence. Founded by Craig Venter
Term
Genetic Determinism
Definition
Genetic Determinist – the belief that genes determine physical and behavioral phenotypes
Term
ELSI
Definition
worlds largest bioetchics program – four areas of research: quality and use of genetic tests – fair use of genetic information – privacy and confidentiality - education
Term
Tissue Culture
Definition
– shaped biology - Ross Harrison, Alexis Carrel, Renato Dulbecco. Places – tissue culture commission, Tissue culture association. Practices – standard growth media, standard cells, hybridization, cloning, somatic cell genetics. Contexts – Polio, World War I and II, Rockefeller Foundation Theory and Hypothesis – Chromosomal theory of inheritance, mutation theory, one gene, on enzyme, DNA-RNA-Protein. Questions – oriented around the cell, created disciplines (cell biology, stem cell biology), experiments in manipulating the cell and its environment
Term
Radioisotopes
Definition
play an important role in serving as tracers for disease and chemical detection. Nuclear medicine, used for diagnosis, treatment, and research.
Term
Stem Cells
Definition
- found in all multi-cellular organisms. Characterized by the ability to renew themselves through mitotic cell division and differentiate into a diverse range of specialized cell types. Highly important in treating disease and controlling cell proliferation. Could also be used to test new drugs. Generation of cells and tissues that could be used for cell-based therapies.
Term
HeLa
Definition
– a cell type in an immortal cell line used in scientific research which is one of the oldest and most commonly used human cell lines. Derived from cervical cancer cells and used to test the first polio vaccine and since then have been used for research into cancer, AIDS, the effects of radiation and toxic substances, gene mapping, and countless other scientific pursuits. Standard cells
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