• external auditory meatus to tympanic membrane

Name the structure that makes up the inner ear

malleus

What structures mark the beginning of the scala tympani?

• apex of cochlea (helicotrema) (continuous with scala vestibuli)
• end at round window

• three cristae ampulares (semicircular canals)
• two maculae (with uttricle and saccule)
• organ of Corti

Name the innervation of the inner ear and their branches

Cranial Nerve 8

• superior/posterior vestibular N.
• anterior/inferior cochlear N.

Perilymph

endolymph

stria vascularis

endolymphatic sac

• kinocilium (nonmotile cilium)
• sterocilia (modified microvilli)

It will open mechanically gated ion channels and cause depolarization.

What is the threshold for the opening of the ion channels wihin hair cell of the vestibular apparatus?

Describe the mechanism of action of vestibular hair cells

• Sterocilia bend toward kinocilium, putting tension of the tip links
• Tip links will pull on the mechanicall gated ion channels, opening them
• this leads to cells depolarizing and triggering action potential in efferent fibers

What structure wraps around the Organ of Corti?

Go through the mechanism of sound production

1. pressure waves deflect tymphanic membrane
2. osicles convey fibrations to oval window
3. When oval window pushed in, round window bulges out
4. perilymph (in SV, ST) vibratesw, causing resonant vibration in scala media
5. Traveling wave passed down to basilar membrane
6. Causes vibration of basilar fibers
7. Fibers dampen sound, causing max displacement of basilar membrane, leadin to max stimulation of hair cells nearby

• at base of cochlea, fibers are short and fat
  • hair cells sensitive to high frequency sounds
• at helicotrema (apex), fibers are long and thin
  • hair cells sensitive to low frequency sounds

Has several rows of stereocilia in a crescent shape with NO kinocilium

1. Work like other hair cells, stimulated to depolarize
2. AP conveyed to nerve vibers through spiral ganglion, into acoustic nerve to brain
3. Tonotopic mapping at cortex

1. pinna
2. ossicles mechanical advantage
3. within organ of corti, hair cells at point of triangle formed by inner and outer pillar cells and on a lever (basilar membrane is the lever)
4. Hair cells apical surface bathed in endolymph and basal surface in perilymph
5. Much more negative restin potential, leading to increased sensitivity

What processes occur during spermiogenesis?

• nuclear condensation and streamlining
• Golgi apparatus forms acrosome
• centrioles spin out flagellum
• mitochondria assemble around middle piece
• mature spermatozoa shed from apical surface of sertoli cells

• form continuous layer of tall columnar cells
• extend across entire thickness of seminiferous epithelium
• indented nucleus with prominent nucleolus
• rER and sER
• many mitochondria
• many junctional complexes, causing compartmentalization of seminiferous epithelium basal and luminal compartments

• support spermatogenesis by providing hospitable microenvironment between the Sertoli cells
• phagocytosis of residual bodies
• synthesize and secrete ABP

Forms a blood testis barrier, isolating adluminal compartment from immune surveillance.

Spermatocytes

Spermatids

Spermatozoa

• CT
• fibroblasts
• capillaries
• lymphatics
• Leydig cells

• lots of sER and mitochondria
• some lipid droplets (store cholesterol esters)
• protein crystals of Reinke

• many coiled tubes
• connect rete testis to ductus epididymus
• surrounded by smooth muscle

Describe histology of efferent ductules

• epithelium of variable height
• some have tall columnar, others with shoter cells with microvilli
• basal cells also present
• contain myoid cells (contractile cells)

1. spermatogenic line disappears, leaving only tall then shorter Sertoli cells
2. finally, simple columnar epithelium

Describe the course of the epididymus

• absorption of fluid
• smooth muscle peristalsis toward vas deferens

• sperm capacitation
• fluid absorption

• pseudostratified columnar with stereocilia and basal cells
• three smooth muscle coats 
  • outer and inner longitudinal
  • middle circular

Ampulla of vas deferens, before the ejaculatory duct, meets with structures called what?

• no spermatozoa in lumen, only secretions
• abundant smooth muscle in walls
• mucosal epithelium pseudostratified and secretory
• conspicuous mucosal foldings

• yellowish
• viscous
• coagulate after ejaculation

• sperm activators- citrate, fructose, inositol
• prostaglandins

• short periurethral and submucosal glands around urethra (poorly branched)
• long main glands throughout its body
• Corpora amylacea- coagulated secretions that build up in duct of glands

peripheral

transition zone

central zone (w/prostatic urethra)

What are the contents of secretions of prostate gland?

• PSA
• acid phosphatase
• fibrinolysin
• amylase

Expansion of periurethral and submucosal glands

• complication- restricts urethra, leading to prevention or prohibition of urinations
• treatment- transurethral resection

Prostatic carcinoma is caused by what? How is it treated

• Testosterone dependent malignant transformation of main glands
• treated surgically

• intraprostatic usually treated successfully
• once metastisized out of prostate, often fatal

Diagnosis of prostate carcinoma

• measure PSA in the blood, and if it is high or rising significantly, indicates prostate carcinoma

• covered by thin skin
• glans penis has numberous sensory genital corpuscles'
• highly vascularized
• surrounded by CT capsules

• corpus cavernosum (main erectile tissue)
• corpus spongiosum (contain penile urethra)

• stimulate uptake of TG from stored colloid 
• cleave TG's iodonated AA's into T4 and T3 and release them into capillaries

• held together by delicate CT domain that also forms capsule
• surrounded by fenestrated capillaries

• larger, lightly stained nuclei
• rounder
• pale

• take up AA, sugars, iodine from capillaries
• synthesize TG through rER, Golgi, secretory vesicles
• TG stored as colloid in lumen of follicles

• chief cells (majority of parathyroid paranchyma)
• oxyphil cells
• CT elements
• fenestrated capillaries

• basophilic granular epithelial cells
• function- secrete PTH

• acidophilic epithelial cells

• bone decalcification
• osteoporosis

Medullary A.'s pass directy from capsule to adrenal medullary veins, allowin for fast bypass of cortex to get catecholamines into the blood quickly.

Describe blood flow within the adrenal cortex.

Cortical capillaries/sinusoids pass over adrenal cortex to get steroids into medulla, then systemic circulation.

cells in glomeruli surrounded by glomerular capillaries

• Cells in long radially arranged plates and cords
• capillaries run parallel to cords
• abundant vacuoles laden with cholesterol esters

• cells arranged as reticular cords
• surrounded by anastamosing network of capillaries

• sER- enzymes for steroid biosynthesis
• lipid vacuoles- stored cholesterol-ester precursors
• mitochondria with tubular cristae (produce steroid synthesis enzymes)

• chromaffin cells
  • electron dense granule type (norepi.)
  • less electron dense granule type (epi.)
• scattered ganglionic cells
• scattered preganglionic sympathetic fibers

• gathered together in one specialized endocrine gland organ (ex: pituitary gland)
• discrete clusters in another specialized organ (ex: Islets of Langerhans)
• dispersed singly among other cells in epithelial tissue (ex: GI, resp. tracts)

• no duct
• surrounded by fenestrated capillaries (heavily vascularized)
• secretory pole of endocrine cells adjacent to capillary wall

sella turcica of the sphenoid bone attached to base of brain via pituitary stalk.

• act on non-endocrine tissue (GH, PRL)
• act on endocrine tissue (aka tropic hormones) (TSH)

• pars distalis (main part)
• pars tuberalis (envelops infundibular stem)
• pars inermedia (separate distalis from nervosa)

• pars nervosa
• infundibulum
  • infundibular process
  • median eminence

Describe the embryology of the adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis

• adenohypophysis develops fron evagination of ectodermal region in the roof of the primitive mouth called Rathke's pouch
• neurohypophysis develops from floor of diencephalon and grows toward primitive mouth
• Rathke's pouch elongates toward infundibulum as infundibulum tries to descend along Rathke's pouch
• as they meet, the inner layer of Rathke's pouch becomes the pars intermedia

• cause- during embryological development, the Rathke's pouch regression did not happen completely, leaving tissue behind that becomes a tumor
• clinical signs
  • pituitary compressed (primary hormone secretion down)
  • optic chiam compressed (bitemporal hemianopsia)

Hormones produced by paraventricular nucleus

• OT
• somatostatin (GIH)
• CRH (ant part)

GHRH

PIH

GnRH

arcuate nucleus

preoptic area

Hormone produced by dorsomedial nucleus

inferior hypophyseal A. (which forms a capillary plexus surrounding post. pit.)

trabecular A.

1. superior hypophyseal A.
2. enters the median eminence and forms the primary capillary plexus
3. portal veins
4. secondary capillary plexus

cords of epithelial cells

minimal supportin CT

many fenestrated capillaries

• chromophils
  • acidophils
  • basophils
• chromophobes

somatotrophs

mammotrophs

thyrotrophs

gonadotrophs

corticotrophs

Explain the distribution of the acidophils and basophils within the pars distalis

• sides- somatotrophs
• median portion
  • thyrotrophs
  • corticotrophs
• scattered
  • mammotrophs
  • gonadotrophs

How are endocrine cells within the pars distalis stored and released?

Stored in secretory granules and released in a pulsitile manner via exocytosis upon stimulation signal into the pericapillary space.

Define dwarfism

low GH during childhood

GH increase in adulthood

• enlarged hands, feet, jaws, soft tissue (growth plate is closed, so you cant grow in length)

• stimulate release of IGF-1 by hepatocytes
• IGF-1 stimulates growth of long bones and soft tissue by stimulating chondrocyte activity

• high glucose inhibits GH
  • high IGF-1 sends negative feedback to pituitary gland and promote somatostatin synthesis by hypothalamus

• major exogenous stimulant- suckling
• major endogenous inhibitor- dopamine
• major endogenous stimulant- TRH, PRH

• male- stimulate Sertoli cells to synthesize inhibin, activin, ABP
• female- stimulate granulosa cells to proliferate and secrete E2, activin, inhibin

• male- stimuate Leydig cells to produce testosterone
• female- stimulate corpus luteum to secrete progesterone

• inhibitors- high cortisol
• stimulators- stress, low cortisol, ADH

Structure of pars intermedia

• landmark structure- Rathke's cysts (follicles filled with colloids)
• weakly basophilic cells
• lined by cuboidal epithelium

• upward extension of distalis
• wraps around pituitary talk
• mostly has gonadotrophs (but defects will not cause FSH, LH deficiency)

• pituicytes (glial cells)
• fenestrated capillaries (from inf. hypophysial A.)
• unmyelinated axons

• Secreted with carrier protein called neurophysin
  • OT- neurophysin I
  • ADH- neurophysin II
• controlled release by pituicytes located along unmyelinated axons and contain lipofuscin
• Herring bodies contain secretory granules and are found along axons

They control the release and diffusion of hormones into the bloodstream. They contain cytoplasminc processes in contact with fenestrated capillaries and axon terminals of neuroendocrine cells, allowing it to block their release. When ADH, OT release, processes retract and give free access of hormones to the pericapillary space.

Comes from roof of posterior diencephalon in the midline of the third ventricle that thickens, and arranges into incomplete lobules

• light hits eye
• SCM nucleus
• hypothalamospinal tract
• superior cervical ganglion
• pineal gland

Function of pineal gland

1. darkness stimulate melatonin relase
2. inhibits GnRH, GH secretion
3. induces sleepiness

• well differentiated pineocytoma (PC)
• poorly differentiated pineoblastoma (PB)
• PPT with intermediate differentiation (PPTID)

• good prognosis in pineocytomas
• poor prognosis in pineoblastomas

• schlera (outer)
• choroid (middle)
• retina (inner)

• ant part is the cornea
• composed of dense, regular CT with many fibroblasts and collagen fibers
• attachment site for oculomotor muscles
• opaque white of eye

1. corneal epithelium
2. Bowman's membrane
3. corneal stroma
4. Descemets membrane
5. corneal endothelium

• anterior chamber (post. cornea to ant. iris)
• posterior chamber (post. iris to ant. lens)
• vitreous chamber (post. lens to neural retina)

• structure- modified vascular channel
• function- outflow tract of aqueous humor

Location of limbus

trabecular meshwork

canal of Schlem

Describe order of drainage of aqueous humor

1. produced by the ciliary body 
2. aqueous humor drains into canal of Schlem
3. filtered out by trabecular meshwork

• structure
  • highly pigmented, vascularized region (post.)
  • iris (ant.)
• function- source of nutrients and oxygen for retina

What is the posterior covering of retina?

• bv's
• pigmented cells
• CT
• dilator and constrictor smooth muscles

Odd proteins found within the lens

• refractive medium
• avascular, but alive
• made of tall thin columnar epithelial cells
• many of surface crystal cells covered by gap junctions

Location and contents of ciliary body

• location- near limbus
• contents
  • bv's
  • ciliary muscles

• definition- opacity of lens
• common populations- older people, diabetic patients

Definition of glaucoma

• hypertension
• congenital abnormalities in limbus
• intraocular tumors

Complications of severe glaucoma

pars iradica

pars ciliaris

pars nervosa

• outer layer- depigmented pupillary dilatory myoepithelial cells
• inner layer- pigmented epithelium on posterior iris

• Outer layer- pigmented
• inner layer- unpigmented

• outer segment
  • elaborately infolded surface membrane to be an antenna for light
  • membranes seeded with protein bound visual pigment
  • ATP dependent process to regenerate visual pigments
• inner segment
  • many mitochondria
  • nucleated neurons
  • many synaptic connections with bipolar cells

• first- inner limiting membrane
• last- outer photoreceptor segments

1. outer segment of photoreceptors
2. inner segment of photoreceptors
3. outer nuclear layer
4. outer plexiform layer
5. inner nuclear layer
6. inner plexiform layer
7. ganglion cell layer
8. optic N. fiber layer
9. inner limiting membrane (light hits here first)

• visual pigment (retinal)
• metabolite of vitamin A
• associated protein (opsin)

Process of photoreceptor reaction when no light enters

1. photoreceptor depolarize
2. calcium channes open
3. NT released
4. IPSP in bipolar cells
5. no NT release from bipolar cells
6. no EPSP in ganglion cells
7. no AP

1. photoreceptor hyperpolarized
2. calcium channels closed
3. no NT rleased
4. no IPSP, bipolar cell depolarize
5. NT release in bipolar cells
6. EPSP in ganglion cell
7. AP's

• red range
• blue range
• green range

• contains cones only with several retinal layers pushed aside
• Function advantage- allows for maximal visual acuity (less structure to scatter light) with acute color vision

physical trauma to the head, causing increase in space between pigmented and neural retina

Parts of conjuctiva and their location

• palpebral part (on back of eyelids)
• bulbar part (reflects over onto corneal surface)

Function and structure of palpebral conjunctiva

• function- sweep cornea clean when we blink
• structure- tall columnar epithelium with apical cleft

Structure of eyelids

• dense CT tarsal plate
• covered on outer surface by thin skin
• inner surface covered by palpebral conjuctiva

• Meibomian glands (in tarsal plate)
• glands of mol (apocrine) (in lashes)
• glands of Zeis (sebaceous) (in lashes)

oral mucosa

tongue

teeth

lip

salivary glands

mostly non keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

• well vascularized (give red color)
• composed of dense CT

alter size and shape of cavity

moving food

bulk of tongue

cheeks

soft palate

hard palate

teeth

sweat glands

sebaceous glands

hair follicles

Define the Vermilion border of lip. Describe its structure

• def.- point of transition where the skin merges with the oral mucosa of the inner surface
• structure
  • lightly keratinized stratified squamous epithelium (transparent)
  • well vascularized papillae
  • devoid of hair follcles, sebaceous glands, sweat glands

• thick stratified squamous epithelium
• submucosa with many labial glands
  • mixed glands (mucous with serous demilunes)

• gives tongue great mobitly to manipulate food around the mouth for efficient fragmentation and swallowing
• provides fine control of tongue movement needed for speech

• location- submucosa between muscular core of tongue and surface epithelium
• composition- mixed glands with serous and mucus acini (slightly more mucus)
• structure
  • interlobar ducts merge into excretory ducts
  • excretory ducts open into oral cavity on ventral surface of tongue

Describe the epithelium of the tongue

• ventral surface- thin nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium continous with floor of mouth
• dorsal surface- thick keratinized stratified squamous epithelium with specializations called papillae on its surface

filiform

fungiform

circumvallate

• conical shape
• MOST ABUNDANT type
• covered by partially keratinized stratified squamouse epithelium
• has NO taste buds

Describe structure of fungiform

• mushroom like shape
• covered by stratified squamous epithelium

• largest papillae
• covered by stratified squamous epithelium
• contain taste buds
• 8-12 are located in front of sulcus terminalis

• function- produce secretions that act as solvent for taste inducing substances
• location- deep in lamina propria of tonuge
• composition- serous glands

sustentacular cells

gustatory cells

basal cells

Location of stem cells. Why are they so important to the taste bud?

• location- base of each taste bud
• because of the rapid turnover of gustatory and sustenacular cells (10-14 days)

• elongated dark cytoplasm
• dark nucleus

• light cytoplasm
• more oval
• rounded nucleus

1. von Ebner's glands wash taste buds by entering at the base of the papillae
2. secretions will dissolve different substances with the help of saliva
3. substances can now enter taste pore
4. stimulate gustatory cells
5. contains unmyelinated axons that synapse on afferent sensory neurons of the facial and glossopharyngeal N.'s

long microvilli that extend into and protrude through the taste pore into the furrow

• sour- lateral edges
• salt- tip of tongue
• bitter- posterior part of tongue
• sweet- tip of tongue

• central pulp cavity
• cementum
• periodontal ligament
• dentine
• enamel

crown (protrude into oral cavity)

root (embedded in bone)

Contents of pulp cavity

• colllagen and fibroblasts in a matrix of GAG's
• nerves
• bv's
• neurovasculature leaves through small apical foramen at the tip of the root to nourish the odontoblasts

• location- covers root of tooth
• structure- calcified and contains collagen (bone like tissue)
• composition
  • upper region- cellular
    • cementocytes and cementoblasts to produce new cementum if needed
  • lower region- acellular

• composition- dense collagen fibers
• function- anchor tooth in alveolar bony socket and absorb shock

• calcium salts in form of hydroxyapatite arranged in long tubes called dentine tubules (70-80%)
• GAG (20-30%)

Composition of predentine

1. synthesize predentine
2. initiate minerailzation to form dentine
   1. matrix vacuoles undergo maturation ans they migrate through odontoblast process
   2. continue to produce more calcium and phosphate ions, leading to mineralization via accretion

• tall, narrow cell
• basal nucleus
• cytoplasm rich in mitochondria, rER
• at apex, odontoblast process running through predentine and dentine layers

many microtubules (for migration)

matrix vacuoles rich in calcium and phosphate

• base- newly formed and contain few mineral salts
• as they migrate, they produce more calcium and phosphate ions

• almost entirely mineral hydroxyapatitie
  • arranged in tightly packed hexagonal enamel prisms
• hardest tissue in the body

1. mineralize enamel right away
   1. secretory vacuoles within Tomes' process operate in a way similar to odontoblast matrix vacuoles

Histological features of ameloblast

• tall, narrow cell
• base attached to cells in stratum intermedium
• basally located nucleus
• cytoplasm abundant in mitochondria
• at upper pole, elongates into a single large Tomes' process

1. ameloblasts are the first to appear followed by odontoblasts
2. odontoblasts are the FIRST ACTIVE and begin making the predentine layer
3. this trigger ameloblasts to form enamel layer
4. at the same time, predentine is mineralized to form dentine (why dentine layer is thincker during late development stage of dentino-enamel junction)
5. enamel layer fully formed
6. tooth erupts, leading to ameloblast apoptosis

• water
• IgA
• lactoferrin
• electrolyes
• enzymes

• parasymp.- water rich saliva
• symp. protein rich saliva

Functions of saliva

• moisten and digest food
• control bacterial flora in mouth to protect oral cavity against pathogens

acini

• pyramidal shape
• round nuclei centrally located in cytoplasm
• secretory granules at the apex of cells
• heavily stained in H&E

• lightly stained in H&E
• filled with mucous secretory product
• nuclei flattened and located at base of cytoplasm

mucous cells are capped with serous cells in the form of a demilunes

1. intralobular ducts
   1. intercalated ducts
   2. striated ducts
2. interlobular ducts
3. interlobar duct

• small lumen
• cuboidal epithelium

• larger lumen than intercalated ducts
• simple columnar epithelium with basal striations
  • formed by deep infoldings of basal cell membrane and mitochondria

• large lumen
• pseudostratified columnar/cuboidal epithelium
• located within CT of septa btw lobules

• location- thick CT btw lobes
• psuedostratified columnar (become pseudostratified squamous when continuous with lining of oral cavity)

• surrounded by CT capsule
• CT septa contents
  • bv's
  • interlobular ducts

mainly serous acini and occasional mucous acini

• parotid- 25%
• submandibular- 70%

• serous- predominant
• mucous- located near ducts and are few
• mixed

Structure and composition of sublingual glands

• NO defined capsule
• predominantly mucous composition
• intercalated ducts rare and not observed

• respiratory epithelium EXCEPT for:
  • vestibule (stratified squamous epithelium)
  • roof of nasal cavity (olfactory epithelium)

basal cells

sustentacular cells

olfactory receptor cells

Function of basal cells of nasal cavity

• bipolar neurons
• central buldge containing nucleus
• from central buldge extend two cytoplasmic processes
  • dendritic process
  • proximal process

• extend to surface of epithelium where tip expanded as olfactory vesicle
• vesicle contains cilia that protrude into nasal cavity

1. passes between basal cells and basal portions of sustentacular cells to penetrate basement membrane
2. turn into unmyelinated axon
3. several axons group together to form filia olfactoria in lamina propria
4. filia olfactoria form synaptic connections in olfactory bulb

Function, location, mechanism of action of Bowman's gland

• loc.- lamina propia of nasal cavity
• function- keep olfactory mucosa moist
• mechanism of action- delivered to olfactory epithelium via ducts

Odorant binding protein (OBP)

IgA

lysozyme

1. OBP constantly released into nasal cavity and bind to specific odorant molecules (allows it to continuously detect and respond to new odors)
2. odorant-OBP complex bind to receptor on surface of cilia of olfactory bipolar neurons
3. stimulate receptor through proximal process
4. communicates with olfactory bulb via fila olfactoria

Epithelium of nasopharyx

• respiratory epithelium

Structure of oropharynx

• lamina propria 
  • dense
  • fibroelastic
  • devoid of glands
• skeletal muscle layer beneath mucosa
  • inner longitudinal
  • outer circular

• two sides
  • lingual/ant. side
    • epithelium: stratified squamouse
  • laryngeal/post. side
    • epithelium: respiratory epithelium
• made of central core of elastic cartilage
• mixed glands in lamina propria

Structure and contents of false vocal cords

• pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
• lamina propria with mixed glands (predominantly mucus), CT, mast cells
• lymphatic nodules

• stratified squamous epithelium
• thin lamina propria devoid of glands
• beneath vocal ligament, find fibers of vocalis

• simple cuboidal epithelium (germinal epithelium) continous with mesothelium of mesovarium
• below epithelium, tunica albuginea (layer of dense CT)
• cortical regioin at peripheral area
• central medulla

• very cellullar stroma with CT, smooth muscle fibers
• follicles containing ovaries

Contents of medulla of ovary

• loose CT
• large bv's
• nerves
• lymphatics

• menstrual phase (day 1-4)
• proliferation phase (day 4-14)
• ovulation (day 14)
• secretory phase (day 15-28)

How is the ovarian cycle broken up into phases?

follicular phase (day 1-14)

luteal phase (day 15-28)

• primordial follicles
• primary follicles
  • unilaminar
  • multilaminar
• secondary follicles
• Graafian follicles

contain oocytes arrested before birth in prophase I of meiosis

• large nucleolus
• many mitochondria
• many rER
• several Golgi complexes

• simple cuboidal epithelium
• zona pellucida begins to form
• oocyte is larger
• follicles recrutied and develop in groups via gonadotrophin independent mechanism

• stratified cuboidal epithelium (follicular cells undergo mitosis)
• follicular cells now called granulosa cells
• avascular
• gap junctions btw granulosa cells
• granulosa cells develop FSH, LH, estrogen receptors
• ZP beomes thicker
• communicate with ovary via gap junctions to give nutrients and regulatory signals
• follicles migrate centrally toward ovarian medulla
• stromal cells arrange around follicle arranged into theca interna and theca externa

• cuboidal cells seperated from granulosa by basement membrane
• capillary network
• LH receptors

• collagen fibers
• smooth muscle fibers

• oval shaped
• contain antrum

At the beginning of follicular phase when FSH begins to rise, 5-10 antral follicles stimulated to continue to grow. From this, a dominant follicle emerges, and will be ovulated. It will be the one that produces more estradiol than the others.

• reached full size
• growth inhibited to oocyte maturation inhbitor (sec. by granulosa cells into antral fluid)
• oocyte located within cumulus oophorus

• 6-12 layers of granulosa cells
• Call-Excner bodies presents
• granulosa cells express FSH receptors in larger number (express LH receptors, but smaller number)
  • can also secrete inhibin to inhibit FSH at pituitary level

1. irregular spaces appear among granulosa cells that contain follicular fluid (liquor folliculi)
2. spaces coalesce to form antrum

• theca interna now expresses LH receptors
• theca interna secrete androstenedione, which will cross the basement membrane and be converted to estradiol by granulosa cells via aromatase enzymes

Effect of estradiol after being produced by granulosa cells

It will diffuse across basement membrane and enter the bv's of theca interna to raise the hormones in general circulation. It will also have a proliferative effect on granulosa cells (increase estradiol receptors in response to increase levels of hormone.)

• single layer of granulosa cells closest to ZP forms corona radiata
• most rapid enlargement 5-6 days before ovulation
• oocyte loosens from rest of granulosa cell by developing new spaces within cumulus oophorus
• oocyte will travel down oviduct with corona radiata and many cumulus cells

stimulate growth of follicles and their maturation (increasing number of gap junctions, induces aromatase activity in granulosa cells)

• stimulate organization of thecal cells and stimulates them to secrete androgens
• stimulate maturation of oocyte in growing follicles

• promotes mitotic activity of granulosa cells
• negative feedback on GnRH secretion
• max secretion at mid cycle from dominant follicle, exerting positive feedback on GnRH secretion

1. at mid cycle, estrogen secreted by preovulatory follicle will cause increase in GnRH secretion and cause pituitary to be more sensitive to GnRH
2. leads to LH surge
3. FSH also has a small surge (due to LH stimuating progesterone production in granulosa cells)
4. when LH increases, also cause completion of meiosis I
5. 36 hours after LH surge begins and 12 hours after LH has peak levels in blood, ovulation occurs

1. stigma forms on one side of the follicle
   • produced by lack of blood flow to particular area of the follicle
   • actions of enzymes such as collagenases (activated by LH surge)
2. adjacent stroma and overlyin germinal epithelium thin out
3. stigma buldge out of ovarian surface
4. stigma rupture, gently releasing follicular fluid and blood with the ovum (still surrounded by ZP and cumulus oophorus)

• granulosa cells become granulosa lutein cells, and make up bulk of corpus luteum
• theca interna cells become theca lutein cells

secrete progesterone

secrete smaller amounts of estradiol

How does CL form

1. follicle wall collapses
2. granulosa cell lining becomes convoluted
3. basal lamina separating granulosa and theca cells dissolves
4. leads to invassion of bv's from theca
5. granulosa and theca cells enlarge, accummulate lipid

Fate of corpus luteum without fertilization

1. LH stimulate progesterone, estrogen secretion from CL
2. this inhibits GnRH leadin to inhibition of FSH, LH
3. when LH inhibited, luteal cells shrink and begin to lose their organization
4. stromal cells invade remains of CL
5. loss of CL means loss of progesterone, so GnRH acts on gonadotrops to produce FSH, LH
6. remaining CL forms a scar, the corpus albicans

1. hCG produced by placenta stimulates CL for six months
2. CL of pregnancy grows to 5 cm and continues to secrete progesterones until birth
3. CL decreases its size in the last three months, and manufactures and releases relaxin

estradiol

IGF I and II (from ovary)

LH

Prolactin

insulin

• promotes dilation of cervix
• softens CT of pubis symphysis

1. ovum shrink and degenerate
2. degeneration of granulosa cells by detachin from each other and the basal lamina
   1. their nuclei become small and dense (pyknotic)
   2. cells are reabsorbed
3. resulting gap in ovarian stroma quickly filled in
4. mechanism of death via apoptosis

• infundibulum
• ampulla
• isthmus
• intramura portion

• funnel shaped opening into peritoneal cavity
• fimbria on its free margins

• right after infundibulum
• expanded lumen
• site of fertilaization
• makes up 2/3 of uterine tube
• many elaborate mucosa folds

• medial 1/3 of oviduct close to uterine wall
• narrow lumen with less complex mucosal folds
• thicker wall

• segment that penetrates uterine wall
• few mucosal folds

1. mucosa
2. muscularis
3. serosa (outermost layer)

• simple columnar epithelium resting on lamina propria which forms lumenal folds
• lamina propria made mainly of reticular fibers, fibroblasts
  • can have some lymphocytes, monocytes, mast cells

• ciliated columnar cells
• secretory cells

What is the height of ciliated columnar cells of the mucosa of uterine tube dependent on?

• early- low cells, few cilia
• at ovulation- tall, max number of cilia
• during luteal phase- cells become shorter and have fewer cilia

• non ciliated
• apical microvilli
• true glands absent

Function of secretory cells of mucosa of uterine tube. What increases number of secretory cells?

• secrete substances to nourish the ovum and promote capacitation (activation) of sperm
• progesterones increase number of secretory cells

• inner circular layer and outer longitudinal layer
• two layers indistinct
• increases in thickness as you get toward the uterus

• mesothelium continuous with mesosalpinx

1. veins in lamina propria that extend into fimbriae become distended
2. brings infundibulum close to ovary

PERISTALTIC CONTRACTIONS OF MUSCULARIS AND BEATING OF THE MUCOSAL CILIA TRANSPORT THE OVUM TO UTERUS.

• very thick
• three ill defined layers of smooth muscle
  • middle layer highly vascularized

Compare the structure of myometrium with pregnant and nonpregnant state

• pregnant- undergoes hypertrophy and hyperplasia and CT increases (500 micrometers long)
• nonpregnant- smooth muscle fibers 30-50 micrometers long

Structure of myometrium AFTER giving birth

• two layers
  • stratum functionalis
  • stratum basalis
• lined by simple columnar epithelium (ciliated and secretory cells) with underlying lamina propria
• epithelium invaginates into lamina propria to form uterin glands

What does endometrium depend on for appearance and maintenance?

hormones