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Final Exam
Study Guide for the Final Exam
259
Anatomy
Undergraduate 1
09/08/2011

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Term
Anatomy
Definition
-study of the structure of an organism
-"cutting up"
Term
Physiology
Definition
-study of the function of living organisms and their parts
Term
Relationship of Anatomy and Physiology
Definition
-certain parts of the body are formed (anatomy) in specific ways to allow the function (physiology) to work properly
Term
Structural Levels of Organization
Definition
-atoms
-molecules
-protein filaments
-cells
-tissues
-organs
-organ systems
-organism
Term
Atom and Molecule
Definition
-fit in the cellular level
Term
Anatomical Position
Definition
-erect or standing position
-arms at the sides
-palms turned forward
-head and feet point forward
-gives reference point
-gives meaning to directional terms used to describe body parts and regions
Term
Superior
Definition
-toward the head
-upper
-above
Term
Inferior
Definition
-toward the feet
-lower
-below
Term
Medial
Definition
-toward the midline of the body
Term
Lateral
Definition
-toward the side of the body
-away from its midline
Term
Proximal
Definition
-toward the trunk of the body
-nearest the trunk of the body
-nearest the point of origin of one of its parts
Term
Distal
Definition
-away from the trunk
-farthest from the trunk
-farthest from the point of origin of a body part
Term
Transverse
Definition
-horizontal or crosswise plane
-divides the body or any of its parts into upper and lower portions
Term
Sagittal
Definition
-lengthwise plane
-divides the body or any of its parts into right and left sides
Term
Midsagittal
Definition
-divides the body into equal halves
Term
Frontal
Definition
-divides the body or any of its parts into anterior and posterior (front and back) portions
Term
Two Main Body Cavities
Definition
-dorsal
-ventral
Term
Dorsal Cavity
Definition
-cranial cavity (brain)
-spinal cavity (spinal cord)
Term
Ventral Cavity
Definition
-thoracic cavity
-mediastinum (trachea, heart, blood vessels)
-pleural cavities (lungs)
-abdominal cavities (liver, gallbladder, stomach, spleen, pancreas, small intestine, parts of large intestine
-pelvic cavity (lower colon, rectum, urinary bladder, reproductive organs)
Term
Nine Regions of the Abdominopelvic Cavity
Definition
-right hypochondriac
-epigastric
-left hypochondriac
-right lumbar
-umbilical
-left lumbar
-right iliac (inguinal)
-hypogastric
-left iliac (inguinal)
Term
Homeostasis
Definition
-constancy of the internal environment
-balance the body tries to maintain by keeping its internal environment "staying the same"
Term
Negative Feedback
Definition
-oppose (or negate) a change in controlled condition
-reverses changes back to normal value in order to stabilize conditions
-example: decreasing blood oxygen concentration caused by muscles using oxygen during exercise is counteracted by an increase in breathing to bring the blood oxygen level back up to normal
Term
Positive Feedback
Definition
-temporarily amplify the change that is occurring
-uterine contractions
-blood clotting
Term
Proton
Definition
-subatomic particle
-positive charge
-found in nucleus
Term
Neutron
Definition
-subatomic particle
-uncharged
-found in nucleus
Term
Electrons
Definition
-subatomic particles
-negative charge
-found in orbitals
Term
Atomic Number
Definition
-the number of protons in the nucleus
Term
Atomic Mass
Definition
-number of protons and neutrons combined
Term
Chemical Bond
Definition
-atoms share, donate, or borrow electrons to become more chemically stable
Term
Ion
Definition
-electrically charged atoms or groups of atoms
Term
Ionic Bond
Definition
-forms between an atom that has only one or two electrons in the outermost level and an atom that needs only one or two electrons to fill its outermost level
-the atom with one or two electrons "donates" its outer shell electrons to the other
Term
Dissociate
Definition
-ionic molecules dissolve in water (water molecule wedge between ions and force them apart)to form free ions
Term
Electrolyte
Definition
-molecules that form ions when dissolved in water
Term
Covalent Bond
Definition
-atoms fill their energy levels by sharing electrons
Term
Four Types of Organic Compounds
Definition
-carbohydrate
-lipid
-protein
-nucleic acid
Term
Carbohydrate
Definition
-monosaccharide (single unit) is used as a source of energy and used to build other carbohydrates
-disaccharide (two units) can be broken into monosaccharides
-polysaccharide (many units) is used to store monosaccharides (thus to store energy)
Term
Lipid
Definition
-triglyceride (one glycerol, three fatty acids) stores energy
-phospholipid (phosphorous-containing unit, two fatty acids) forms cell membranes
-cholesterol (four carbon rings at core) transports lipids; is basis of steroid hormones
Term
Protein
Definition
-structural proteins (amino acids) form structures of the body (fibers)
-functional proteins (amino acids) facilitate chemical reactions;send signals; regulate functions (enzymes, hormones)
Term
Nucleic Acid
Definition
-DNA (nucleotides-contain deoxyribose) contains information (genetic code) for making proteins
-RNA (nucleotides-contani ribose) serves as a copy of a portion of the genetic code
Term
Inorganic Molecules
Definition
-water
-acids
-bases
-salts
Term
Water
Definition
-most important inorganic molecule
-most essential to life
-most abundant compound in the body
Term
Dehydration Synthesis
Definition
-reactants combine only after hydrogen and oxygen atoms are removed
-the leftover H and O atoms come together forming water
-reaction in which water is lost from the reactants
Term
Hydrolysis
Definition
-water disrupts the bonds in large molecules, causing them to be broken down into smaller molecules
-virtually the reverse of dehydration synthesis
Term
Acid
Definition
-substance that shifts the H+/OH- balance in favor of H+; opposite of base
-pH of less than 7
Term
Base
Definition
-substance that shifts the H+/OH- balance against H+; opposite of acid
-also known as alkaline
-pH of greater than 7
Term
pH
Definition
-mathematical expression of relative H+ concentration in an aqueous solution
-pH of 7 is neutral
-pH values above 7 are basic or alkalinic
-pH levels below 7 are acidic
Term
Three Main Subdivisions of the Cell
Definition
-plasma membrane
-cytoplasm
-nucleus
Term
Plasma Membrane
Definition
-forms outer boundary of cell
-thin, two-layered membrane of phospholipid-containing proteins
-is selectively permeable
Term
Cytoplasm
Definition
-internal living material of cells
-lies between plasma membrane and nucleus
-contains organelles
-
Term
Nucleus
Definition
-controls cell because it contains the genetic code (instructions for making proteins, which in turn determine cell structure and function)
-component structures include nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, nucleolus, and chromatic granules
-46 chromosomes contain DNA, which contains the genetic code
-limited ability to fix damage to DNA
-control center
Term
Organelles
Definition
-little organs:
-ribosomes
-endoplasmic reticulum
-Golgi apparatus
-mitochondria
-lysosomes
-centrioles
-cilia
-flagella
Term
Ribosomes
Definition
-may attach to rough ER or lie free in cytoplasm
-manufacture proteins
-often called protein factories
Term
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Definition
-network of connecting sacs and canals
-carry substances through cytoplasm
-rough ER collects and transports proteins made by ribosomes
-smooth ER synthesizes chemicals; makes new membrane
Term
Golgi Apparatus
Definition
-group of flattened sacs near nucleus
-chemically processes, then packages substances from the ER
Term
Lysosomes
Definition
-membrane-enclosed packets containing digestive enzymes
-have protective function (eat microbes)
-garbage disposal of the cell
Term
Centrioles
Definition
-paired organelles that lie at right angles to each other near nucleus
-function in cell reproduction
Term
Two Main Types of Transport in the Cell
Definition
-cilia
-flagella
Term
Cilia
Definition
-fine, hairlike extensions found on free or exposed surfaces of some cells
-capable of moving in unison in a wavelike fashion
Term
Flagella
Definition
-single projections extending from cell surfaces; much larger than cilia
-"tails" of sperm cells only example of flagella in humans
Term
Protein Synthesis
Definition
-ribosomes play a crucial role
Term
Mitosis
Definition
-centrioles play a crucial role
Term
DNA
Definition
-large molecule shaped like staircase
-sugar (deoxyribose)and phosphate units compose sides of the molecule
-base pairs (adenine-thymine, guanine-cytosine)compose "steps"
-base pairs always the same but sequence differs in different DNA molecules
-gene (specific sequence of base pairs within a DNA molecule)
Term
RNA
Definition
-sugar(ribose) and phosphate
-base pairs (adenine-thymine, guanine-uracil)
-mRNA (messenger), tRNA(transport RNA), rRNA (ribosomal)
Term
Transcription
Definition
-double-stranded DNA separates to form mRNA
-each strand of mRNA duplicates a particular gene from a segment of DNA
-mRNA molecules pass from the nucleus to the cytoplasm where they direct protein synthesis in ribosomes and ER
Term
Translation
Definition
-involves synthesis of proteins in cytoplasm by ribosomes
-requires use of information contained in mRNA
Term
Four Stages of Mitosis
Definition
-prophase
-metaphase
-anaphase
-telophase
Term
Prophase
Definition
-first stage
-chromatin granules become organized
-chromosomes appear
-centrioles move away from nucleus
-nuclear envelope disappears, freeing genetic material
-spindle fibers appear
Term
Metaphase
Definition
-second stage
-chromosomes align across center of cell
-spindle fibers attach themselves to each chromatid
Term
Anaphase
Definition
-third stage
-centromeres break apart
-separated chromatids then called chromosomes
-chromosomes are pulled to opposite ends of cell
-cleavage furrow develops at end
Term
Telophase
Definition
-fourth stage
-cell division is completed
-nuclei appear in daughter cells
-nuclear envelope and nucleoli appear
-cytoplasm is divided (cytokinesis)
-daughter cells become fully functional
Term
Four Main Types of Tissues
Definition
-epithelial tissue
-connective tissue
-muscle tissue
-nervous tissue
Term
Epithelial Tissue
Definition
-covers the body and many of its parts
-lines various parts of the body
Term
Connective Tissue
Definition
-most abundant and widely distributed tissue in the body
-found in skin, membranes, muscles, bones, nerves, and all internal organs
-delicate, paper-thin webs that hold internal organs together and give them shape
-exists as strong and tough cords, rigid bones, and fluid (blood)
Term
Muscle Tissue
Definition
-movement specialists of the body
-ability to shorten and contract
-skeletal, smooth, cardiac
Term
Nervous Tissue
Definition
-provide rapid communication between body structures and control of body functions
-neurons and glial cells
Term
Four Shapes of Epithelial Cells
Definition
-squamous
-cuboidal
-columnar
-transitional
Term
Integumentary System
Definition
-skin
-hair
-nails
-sense receptors
-sweat glands
-oil glands
Term
Skeletal System
Definition
-bones
-joints
Term
Muscular System
Definition
-muscles
Term
Nervous System
Definition
-brain
-spinal cord
-nerves
Term
Endocrine System
Definition
-pituitary gland
-pineal gland
-hypothalamus
-thyroid gland
-parathyroid
-thymus
-adrenals
-pancreas
-ovaries (females)
-testes (males)
Term
Cardiovascular System
Definition
-heart
-blood vessels
Term
Lymphatic System
Definition
-lymph nodes
-lymph vessels
-thymus
-spleen
-tonsils
Term
Respiratory System
Definition
-nose
-pharynx
-larynx
-trachea
-bronchi
-lungs
Term
Digestive System (Primary Organs)
Definition
-mouth
-pharynx
-esophagus
-stomach
-small intestine
-large intestine
-rectum
-anal canal
Term
Digestive System (Accessory Organs)
Definition
-teeth
-salivary glands
-tongue
-liver
-gallbladder
-pancreas
-appendix
Term
Urinary System
Definition
-kidneys
-ureters
-urinary bladder
-urethra
Term
Reproductive System (Males)
Definition
-gonads (testes)
-genital ducts (vas deferens, erethra)
-accessory organs (prostate)
-genitalia (penis, scrotum)
Term
Reproductive System (Female)
Definition
-gonads (ovaries)
-accessory organs (uterus, fallopian tubes, vagina)
-genitalia (vulva)
-mammary glands (breasts)
Term
Four Types of Membranes
Definition
-cutaneous
-serous
-mucous
-synovial
Term
Cutaneous Membrane
Definition
-epithelial
-skin
Term
Serous Membranes
Definition
-epithelial
-lines body cavities and covers surfaces of organs
Term
Mucous Membranes
Definition
-epithelial
-line body surfaces that open directly to the exterior
-produce mucus, a thick secretion that keeps the membranes soft and moist
Term
Synovial Membranes
Definition
-connective
-produce a lubricant called synovial fluid
-in the spaces between joints and the lining of bursal sacs
Term
Two Main Layers of Skin
Definition
-epidermis
-dermis
Term
Stratum Germinativum
Definition
-undergoes mitosis
-reproduce themselves
Term
Stratum Corneum
Definition
-dry, dead cells
-contains keratin
-constantly flakes off
Term
Melanin
Definition
-brown pigment
-produced by specialized cells (melanocytes)
-absorb harmful UV radiation from sunlight before it reaches tissues below the outer layers of skin
Term
Fibers of the Dermis
Definition
-tough and strong (collagen)
-stretchable and elastic (elastic)
Term
Dermal Papillae
Definition
-form the ridges and grooves that make up finger- and footprints
Term
Structures of Hair
Definition
-papilla
-hair bulb
-hair follicle
-hair root
-hair shaft
-dermal blood vessel, sebaceous gland, arrector pili muscle
Term
Arrector Pili Muscle
Definition
-tiny, smooth (involuntary) muscle
-attached to the base of a dermal papilla above and to the side of a hair follicle below
-contract when frightened or cold
-raises hair
Term
Structures of Nail
Definition
-nail root
-cuticle
-lunula
-nail body
-free edge
Term
Two Main Types of Sweat Glands
Definition
-eccrine
-apocrine
Term
Eccrine Sweat Glands
Definition
-more numerous, important, and widespread sweat glands in the body
-small, distributed (almost) over the total body surface
-produce perspiration or sweat
Term
Apocrine Sweat Glands
Definition
-found primarily in skin in armpit and pigmented areas around genitals
-larger
-secrete a thicker secretion that is caused by contamination and decomposition of secretion by skin bacteria
-enlarge and begin to function at puberty
Term
Sebaceous Glands
Definition
-secrete oil for the hair and skin
-grow where hairs grow
-"nature's skin cream"
-form pimples and blackheads
Term
Functions of Skin
Definition
-protection
-temperature regulation
-sense organ activity
Term
Rule of Nines
Definition
-most commonly used methods of determining extent of burn injury
-body is divided into 11 areas of 9% each
-genitalia represents additional 1%
Term
Three Levels of Burns
Definition
-first-degree
-second-degree
-third-degree
Term
First-Degree Burns
Definition
-partial-thickness burns
-causes minor discomfort and some redness of the skin
-no blistering
-actual tissue destruction is minimal
Term
Second-Degree Burns
Definition
-partial-thickness
-involves the deep epidermal layers and always causes injury to the upper layers of the dermis
-blisters, severe pain, generalized swelling, and fluid loss
-scarring is common
Term
Third-Degree Burns
Definition
-full-thickness
-complete destruction of epidermis and dermis
-extends into subcutaneous tissue
-often involve underlying muscles and even bone
-insensitive to pain immediately after injury due to destruction of nerve endings
-fluid loss becomes serious problem
Term
Functions of Bone
Definition
-support
-protection
-movement
-storage
-hematopoiesis
Term
Four Types of Bone
Definition
-long (femur)
-short (tarsals)
-flat (parietal)
-irregular (vertebrae)
Term
Six Main Parts of Long Bone
Definition
-diaphysis
-medullary cavity
-epiphyses
-articular cartilage
-periosteum
-endosteum
Term
Compact Bone
Definition
-outer layer of bone
-hard and dense
-appears solid to the naked eye
Term
Spongy Bone
Definition
-porous bone in the epiphyses
-many spaces that may be filled with marrow
-needlelike threads of spongy bone that surround a network of spaces (trabeculae)
Term
Red Marrow
Definition
-located in the hard walls of some bones
-assists in blood cell formation
Term
Yellow Marrow
Definition
-located in the medullary cavity
-inactive, fatty marrow
-in extreme cases, turns itself into red marrow
Term
Endochondral Ossification
Definition
-begins with cartilage model
-invasion of diaphysis by blood vessels and the combined action of osteoblast and osteoclast cells result in cavity formation, calcification, and appearance of bone tissue
centers of ossification appear in epiphyses
-epiphyseal plate indicates bone is not mature
-epiphyseal line marks mature growth
Term
Axial Skeleton
Definition
-skull
-vertebral column
-thorax
Term
Appendicular Skeleton
Definition
-upper extremities
-lower extremities
Term
Eight Cranial Bones
Definition
-frontal (1)
-parietal (2)
-temporal (2)
-occipital (1)
-sphenoid (1)
-ethmoid (1)
Term
Fourteen Bones of the Face
Definition
-nasal (2)
-maxilla (2)
-zygomatic (2)
-mandible (1)
-lacrimal (2)
-palatine (2)
-inferior nasal concha (2)
-vomer (1)
Term
Divisions of Spine
Definition
-cervical (7)
-thoracic (12)
-lumbar (5)
-sacrum
-coccyx
Term
True Ribs
Definition
-upper (7) pairs
-attached to sternum by costal cartilages
Term
False Ribs
Definition
-lower (5) pairs
-first three pairs attached to sternum by costal cartilage of seventh ribs
-lowest two ribs do not attach (floating ribs)
Term
Bones of Upper Extremity
(Proximal to Distal)
Definition
-clavicle and scapula
-humerus
-radius and ulna
-carpal bones
-metacarpals
-phalanges
Term
Bones of Lower Extremity
(Proximal to Distal)
Definition
-coxal bone
-femur
-patella
-tibia and fibula
-tarsal bones
-metatarsals
-phalanges
Term
Differences Between Male and Female Pelvis
Definition
-male: generally larger, narrower, funnel-shaped
-female: generally smaller, more broad and shallow shape, pelvic inlet and outlet are normally wider, angle at the front of the pelvis (where two pubic bones join) is wider
Term
Three Major Classifications of Joints
Definition
-synarthroses (no movement)
-amphiarthroses (slight movement)
-diarthroses (free movement)
Term
Six Types of Diarthroses
Definition
-ball and socket (shoulder, hip)
-hinge (knee, elbow)
-pivot (neck)
-saddle (fingers, toes)
-gliding (vertebrae)
-condyloid (wrist, ankle)
Term
Skeletal Muscle
Definition
-voluntary
-striated
-multinucleated
-attaches to bones
Term
Cardiac Muscle
Definition
-involuntary
-striated
-intercalated discs
-heart
Term
Smooth Muscle
Definition
-involuntary
-unstriated
-organs
Term
Origin
Definition
-muscle's attachment to a more stationary bone
Term
Insertion
Definition
-muscle's attachment to the more movable bone
Term
Bursae
Definition
-small fluid-filled sacs that lie between some tendons and the bones beneath them
Term
Tendons
Definition
-anchor muscles firmly to bones
-made of dense, fibrous connective tissue
-great strength
Term
Thick Myofilaments
Definition
-composed of myosin
Term
Thin Myofilaments
Definition
-composed of actin
Term
Sarcomere
Definition
-basic functional unit of skeletal muscle
Term
ATP
Definition
-ion required for contraction
Term
Posture
Definition
-muscle tone that hold muscles in position
Term
Good Posture
Definition
-body parts are held in the position that favor best function
Term
Motor Neuron
Definition
-nerve fiber that stimulates muscle fibers
Term
Neuromuscular Junction
Definition
-point of contact between the nerve ending and muscle fiber
Term
Motor Unit
Definition
-a single motor neuron with the muscle fibers it innervates
Term
Threshold Stimulus
Definition
-minimal level of stimulation required to cause a fiber to contract
Term
Isotonic Contraction
Definition
-produces movement at a joint
-muscle changes in length
Term
Isometric Contraction
Definition
-muscle does not shorten
-no movement is produced
-muscles grow larger and stronger
-pushing against a wall, trying to lift a car
Term
Strength Training
Definition
-contracting muscles against heavy resistance
-isometric exercises and weight lifting
-results in increased numbers of myofilaments in each muscle fiber (number of muscle fibers stays same)
-increases mass of muscle
Term
Endurance Training
Definition
-aerobic training
-increases muscle's ability to sustain moderate exercise over a long period
-running, bicycling, isotonic movements increase the number of blood vessels in a muscle without significantly increasing its size
-increased blood flow allows a more efficient delivery of oxygen and glucose
-causes increase in number of mitochondria in muscle fibers (production of more ATP as arapid energy source)
Term
Flexion
Definition
-reduces the angle of the joint; as in bending the elbow
Term
Extension
Definition
-increases the angle of a joint; as in straightening a bent elbow
Term
Adduction
Definition
-decreases the angle of a joint to move a part toward the midline, as in moving the arm in and down from the side
Term
Abduction
Definition
-increases the angle of a joint to move a part away from the midline, as in moving the arm to the side and away from the body
Term
Frontal
Definition
-raises eyebrow
Term
Masseter
Definition
-closes jaw
Term
Deltoid
Definition
-abducts upper arm
Term
External Oblique
Definition
-compresses abdomen
Term
Biceps Brachii
Definition
-flexes elbow
Term
Iliopsoas
Definition
-flexes thigh or trunk
Term
Gluteus Maximus
Definition
-extends thigh
Term
Gracilis
Definition
-adducts thigh
Term
Biceps Femoris
Definition
-flexes knee
Term
Rectus Femoris
Definition
-extends knee
Term
Gastrocnemius
Definition
-plantar flexes ankle
Term
Sternocleidomastoid
Definition
-rotates and flexes head and neck
Term
Central Nervous System
Definition
-brain
-spinal cord
Term
Central Nervous System
Definition
-brain
-spinal cord
Term
Central Nervous System
Definition
-brain
-spinal cord
Term
Peripheral Nervous System
Definition
-cranial nerves
-spinal nerves
Term
Neuron
Definition
-consists of cell body, dendrites, axon
-sensory (afferent)
-motor (efferent)
Term
Glia
Definition
-support cells
Term
Astrocytes
Definition
-star-shaped cells
-anchor small blood vessels to neurons
Term
Microglia
Definition
-small cells that move in inflamed brain tissue carrying on phagocytosis
Term
Oligodendrocytes
Definition
-form myelin sheaths on axons in the CNS
Term
Schwann cells
Definition
-form myelin sheaths on axons of the PNS
Term
Cell Body
Definition
-contains nucleus
Term
Dendrites
Definition
-conduct impulses to cell body of neuron
Term
Axons
Definition
-conduct impulses away from cell body of neuron
Term
Myelin
Definition
-white, fatty substance that wrap around some axons
-protection
Term
Two-Neuron Reflex Arc
Definition
-consists of sensory neurons synapsing in the spinal cord with motor neurons
Term
Three-Neuron Reflex Arc
Definition
-consist of sensory neurons synapsing in the spinal cord with interneurons that synapse with motor neurons
Term
Receptors
Definition
-receive an impulse
Term
Effectors
Definition
-effect a response from receptors
Term
Nerve Impulse
Definition
-stimulus triggers the opening of Na+ channels inthe plasma membrane of the neuron
Term
Synapse
Definition
-chemical compounds released from axon terminals (of a presynaptic neuron) into a synaptic cleft
Term
Neurotransmitters
Definition
-bind to specific receptor molecules in the membrane of a postsynaptic neuron, opening ion channels and thereby stimulating impulse conduction by the membrane
Term
Brainstem
Definition
-medulla oblongata
-pons
-midbrain
Term
Hypothalamus
Definition
-diencephalon
-act as major center for controlling ANS; helps control function of most internal organs
-controls hormone secretion by anterior and posterior pituitary glands
-contains centers for controlling body temperature, appetite, wakefulness, and pleasure
Term
Thalamus
Definition
-diencephalon
-relays sensory impulses to cerebral cortex
-produces emotions of pleasantness or unpleasantness associated with sensations
Term
Cerebellum
Definition
-helps control muscle contractions to produce coordinated movements so we can maintain balance, move smoothly, and sustain normal postures
Term
Cerebrum
(Function)
Definition
-mental processes of all types (sensations, consciousness, memory, voluntary control of movements)
Term
Definition
-
Term
Cerebrum
(Four Lobes)
Definition
-frontal
-parietal
-temporal
-occipital
Term
Cerebrum
(Functional Regions)
Definition
-association areas put together information from many different parts of the brain
Term
Spinal Cord
Definition
-"switchboard" of the body
-sensory impulses travel up to the brain in ascending tracts
-motor impulses travel down from the brain in descending tracts
-primary reflex center of the body
Term
Dura Mater
Definition
-tough outer layer that lines the vertebral canal
Term
Arachnoid Mater
Definition
-membrane between pia and dura mater
-"cobweb-like" membrane
-fluid in its spaces
Term
Pia Mater
Definition
-innermost membrane covering the spinal cord itself
Term
Spinal Nerves
Definition
-8 cervical pairs
-12 thoracic pairs
-5 lumbar pairs
-5 sacrospinal pairs
-1 coccygeal segment pair
-(31 total pairs)
Term
Cranial Nerves
Definition
-12 pairs
Term
Dermatome
Definition
-skin surface areas that are supplied by a single spinal nerve
Term
Sympathetic Nervous System
Definition
-"fight or flight"
-functions as emergency system
Term
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Definition
-controls many visceral effectors under normal, everyday conditions
Term
Tactile (Meissner) Corpuscles
Definition
-fine touch and low-frequency vibration
Term
Bulbous (Ruffini) Corpuscles
Definition
-touch and pressure
Term
Lamellar (Pacini) Corpuscles
Definition
-pressure and high-frequency vibration
Term
Bulboid Corpuscles
(Krause End Bulbs)
Definition
-touch
Term
Golgi Tendon Organs
Definition
-proprioception (sense of muscle tension)
Term
Muscle Spindles
Definition
-proprioception (sense of muscle length)
Term
Sclera
Definition
-outer layer
-cornea, conjunctiva, lacrimal gland
-"white" of eye
Term
Choroid
Definition
-middle layer
-iris, ciliary muscle, pupil, lens
-filters incoming light rays
Term
Retina
Definition
-innermost layer
-rods and cones, fovea centralis, aqueous and vitreous humor
-photoreceptor
Term
Glaucoma
Definition
-drainage of aqueous humor is blocked which increases internal pressure within the eye
-damage could lead to blindness
Term
Cataract
Definition
-long-time exposure to UV radiation in sunlight may cause the lens to become hard, lose its transparency, and become "milky" in appearance
-progressive
-may result in blindness
Term
LASIK
Definition
-laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis
-creates a hinged cap of tissue which is lifted off corneal surface
-laser vaporizes and reshapes underlying tissue
-cap is replaced
Term
External Ear
Definition
-auricle
-external auditory canal
Term
Middle Ear
Definition
-ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes)
-auditory (eustachian) tube
Term
Inner Ear
Definition
-semicircular canals
-oval window
-cochlea
-vestibule
-bony and membranous labyrinth
Term
Photoreceptor
Definition
-rods and cones
-vision
-eye
Term
Mechanoreceptor
(Organ of Corti)
Definition
-hearing
-ear
Term
Mechanoreceptor
(Cristae Ampullares)
Definition
-balance
-ear
Term
Chemoreceptor
(Olfactory Cells)
Definition
-smell
-nose
Term
Chemoreceptor
(Gustatory Cells)
Definition
-taste
-taste buds (tongue)
Term
Primary Taste Sensations
Definition
-sweet (glucose)
-sour (citric acid)
-salty (sodium chloride)
-bitter (poisons)
Term
Kidneys
(Location)
Definition
-under back muscles
-behind parietal peritoneum
-just above waistline
-right kidney usually a little lower than left
Term
Kidneys
(Six Major Parts)
Definition
-cortex (outer layer of kidney substance)
-medulla (inner portion of kidney)
-pyramids (triangular divisions of medulla)
-papilla (narrow, innermost end of pyramid)
-pelvis (expansion of upper end of ureter; lies inside kidney
-calyces (divisions of renal pelvis)
Term
Nephron
(Subdivisions)
Definition
-renal corpuscle
---Bowman's capsule
---glomerulus
-renal tubule
---proximal convoluted tubule
---loop of Henle
---distal convoluted tubule
---collecting tubule
Term
Urine Formation
Definition
-filtration: renal corpuscles
-reabsorption: into blood and peritubular cavities
-secretion: into distal and collecting tubules
Term
Reabsorbed
Definition
-water
-nutrients
-ions
Term
Secreted
Definition
-hydrogen ions
-potassium ions
-certain drugs
-ammonia
Term
ADH
Definition
-water-retaining
-urine-decreasing
Term
ANH
Definition
-salt- and water-losing
Term
Ureter
Definition
-narrow, long tubes with expanded upper end (renal pelvis) located inside kidney and lined with mucous membrane
Term
Urinary Bladder
(Structure)
Definition
-elastic muscular organ, capable of great expansion
-lined with mucous membrane arranged in rugae
Term
Urinary Bladder
(Function)
Definition
-storage of urine before voiding
-voiding
Term
Urethra
Definition
-narrow tube from urinary bladder to exterior
-lined with mucous membrane
-opening of urethra to exterior called urinary meatus
-passage of urine from bladder to exterior
-passage of male reproductive fluid (semen) from the body
Term
Micturition
Definition
-passage of urine from body (urination or voiding)
Term
Emptying Reflex
Definition
-initiated by stretch reflex in bladder wall
-bladder wall contracts
-internal sphincter relaxes
-external sphincter relaxes, and urination occurs
Term
Urinary Retention
Definition
-urine produced but not voided
Term
Urinary Suppression
Definition
-no urine produced but bladder is normal
Term
Incontinence
Definition
-urine is voided involuntarily
Term
Cystitis
Definition
-bladder infection
Term
Overactive Bladder
Definition
-need for frequent urination
-called interstitial cystitis
-amounts voided are small
-extreme urgency and pain are common
Term
Water
(Factors)
Definition
-total body weight of individual
-fat content of body
-gender
-age
Term
Fluid Compartments
Definition
-extracellular fluid (ECF)
-intracellular fluid (ICF)
Term
ADH
(Fluid Balance)
Definition
-decreases urine volume
-reabsorbs sodium
Term
Electrolytes
Definition
-compounds that break up or dissociate in water solution into separate particles called ions
-ordinary table salt or sodium chloride
Term
Nonelectrolytes
Definition
-organic substances that do not break up or dissociate when placed in water solution
-glucose
Term
Ions
Definition
-the dissociated particles of an electrolyte that carry an electrical charge
-negative: Cl- (chloride)
-positive: K+ (potassium)
Term
Sodium
Definition
-most important and abundant ion in the body
-regulated by kidney and aldosterone
Term
Aldosterone
Definition
-increases Na+ reabsorption in kidney tubules
-refer to page 466 (Figure 18-6)
Term
Diuretics
Definition
-substances that promote or stimulate the production of urine
-influence water and electrolyte balance
Term
Dehydration
Definition
-total volume of body fluids less than normal; IF volume shrinks first, then if treatment is not given, ICF volume and plasma volume decrease
-occurs when fluid output exceeds intake for an extended period
-prolonged diarrhea or vomiting may result in dehydration
Term
Overhydration
Definition
total volume of body fluids greater than normal
-occurs when fluid intake exceeds output
-various factors may cause this (giving excessive amounts of IV fluids or giving them too rapidly may increase intake above output)
-can put too heavy a burden on the heart
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