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Exam 4 Chapters 24-28
URI Anatomy with Mazurkie
60
Anatomy
Undergraduate 1
04/19/2010

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Term
Why is the respiratory system necessary and what are its six main functions? (Ch. 24, pg. 630-1)
Definition

The respiratory system is necessary to the body because the cells need a way to obtain oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide. 

The functions include:

  1. providing an extensive area for gas exchange between air & circulating blood
  2. moving blood to & from the exchange surface of the lungs
  3. protecting respiratory surfaces from dehydration, temp changes, and other environmental variations
  4. defending itself and other tissue from invasion by pathogenic microorganisms
  5. producing sounds involved in speaking, singing, or nonverbal communication
  6. assisting in the regulation of blood volume & pressure, and the control of body fluid pH
Term
How is the respiratory tract subdivided and what is included within each division? (Ch. 24, pg. 630)
Definition
The tract can be divided into the conducting portion, beginning at the nasal cavity and extending to the smallest bronchioles of the lungs, and the respiratory portion, which includes the respiratory bronchioles & alveoli where gas exchange occurs.
Term
Describe the respiratory epithelium, and how it creates a mucus escalator. (Ch. 24, pg. 631-2)
Definition
The epithelium lining the majority of the respiratory system consists of pseudostratified, ciliated, columnar epithelium with numerous mucous cells.  The cilia in the nose sweep debris down toward the pharynx to be swallowed, and and the cilia in the lower portions of the tractbeat up to the pharynx to create the mucus elevator that cleans the respiratory passageways.
Term
What purpose does the turbulence caused by the turbinate bones (nasal conchae) serve? (Ch. 24, pg. 632)
Definition
As the air swirls, small airborne particles are more likely to come in contact with the mucus coating the nasal cavity.  In addition to filtration, the turbulence allows extra time for warming & humidifying of the air
Term
What happens in the trachea during swallowing? (Ch. 24, pg. 635)
Definition
The larynx is elevated and the epiglottis folds down over the glottis to prevent the entry of liquids or solid food into the respiratory passageway
Term
What is another name for the laryngeal prominence on the thyroid cartilage? (Ch. 24, pg. 635)
Definition
Adam's Apple
Term
Explain how sound production happens, and which vocal cords are involved. (Ch. 24, pg. 636)
Definition
Air passes through the glottis and vibrates the true vocal cords (vocal folds) which produce sound waves.  The walls of the larynx vibrate as well, assisting in sound production.  The vestibular folds are known as false vocal cords because they are not involved in sound production.
Term
What purpose do the tracheal cartilages serve? (Ch. 24, pg. 637)
Definition
These cartilage rings stiffen the tracheal walls and protect the airway, and prevent its collapse or overexpansion as pressures change in the respiratory system.
Term
Describe the anatomy of the lungs. (Ch. 24, pg. 638-41 including figure 24.10)
Definition
The trachea travels down the chest, and splits (internal ridge at split is called carina) into a left and right primary bronchi.  The right primary bronchi has a larger diameter and descends at a steeper angle, and so things are more likely to become lodged in the right bronchi.  The bronchi continue to branch until they become bronchioles. These lead to the lobules housing the alveoli. The Right lung is split into the superior, middle and inferior lobe, while the left has only a superior & inferior lobe, and has a space for the heart
Term
In what ways are the bronchioles of the lungs different than the bronchi? (Ch. 24, pg. 640)
Definition
The bronchioles have less cartilage and more smooth muscle, allowing them to constrict and dialate.
Term
What does the make-up of alveoli allow for? (Ch. 24, pg. 644)
Definition
The many spherical alveoli which make up the lobules allow a huge increase in surface area, in comparison to smooth lungs. Increased surface area results in increased speed of gas diffusion.
Term
How do respiratory muscles help inspiration and expiration? (Ch. 24, pg. 647-8)
Definition
  • Inspiration - The diaphragm contracts downward, increasing the volume in the thoracic cavity. The external intercostals assist in this increase by elevating the ribs, aided by the serratus anterior,  sternocleidomastiod, pec minor, and scalenes
  • Expiration - When the diaphragm relaxes, it aches upward, reducing the volume of the thoracic cavity. The internal intercostals depress the ribs, assisting in the reduction of volume.  The transversus thoracis, oblique and rectus abdominis muscles aid the internal intercostals by compressing the abdominal contents
Term
How does aging affect the respiratory system? (Ch. 24, pg. 650)
Definition
  1. Elastic tissue throughout the body deteriorates and is replaced with collagen.  This decreases the lungs' ability to inflate & deflate
  2. Movements of the rib cage are restricted by arthritic changes
  3. Some degree of emphysema is common
Term
What are the seven main functions performed by the digestive tract and accessory organs? (Ch. 25, pg. 656)
Definition
  1. Ingestion (food & liquid enter digestive tract via mouth)
  2. Mechanical processing (including squashing with tongue, tearing/crushing with teeth, and mixing, churning & propulsion in the rest of the tract
  3. Digestion (chemical & enzymatic breakdown of complex sugars, lipids & proteins into small organic molecules that can be absorbed by the digestive epithelium
  4. Secretion (acids, enzymes, and buffers produced by the lining of tract or accessory organs such as pancreas)
  5. Absorption (movement of small molecules across the digestive epithelium & into interstitial fluid)
  6. Excretion (waste products are secreted into the tract primarily by accessory glands like the liver)
  7. Compaction (dehydration of indigestible material & organic wastes prior to defecation, into compacted form known as feces)
Term
What are the 4 major layers of the digestive tract? (Ch. 25, pg. 656)
Definition
  1. The mucosa, which is in contact with the food, is a mucous membrane
  2. The submucosa
  3. The muscularis externa, which is filled with smooth muscle used both to propel food through the tract and mechanically process it
  4. The serosa, a serous membrane covering the muscularis externa.

Remember that food is considered to be outside the body.

Term
Describe the structure of the inner layer of the digestive tract. (Ch. 25, pg. 658)
Definition
The inner layer has many folds (hills) called plicae. Each plica is covered in villi (bumps), and each villi is covered in microvilli.  This greatly increases the surface area for better absorption.
Term
Explain how peristalsis and segmentation work. (Ch. 25, pg. 659, fig. 25.3)
Definition
  • Peristalsis contracts the muscularis externa behind the bolus, creating pressure behind it.  There is lower pressure in front and so the bolus moves forward
  • Segmentation also contracts the muscularis externa, but produces no net movement. The muscle in front and behind contract at the same time, chopping up the boluses.
Term
What are the 4 functions of the oral cavity? (Ch. 25, pg. 662)
Definition
  1. Analysis of material before swallowing
  2. Mechanical processing using the teeth, tongue, and palatal surfaces
  3. Lubrication by mixing with mucous & salivary secretions
  4. Limited digestion of carbohydrates by a salivary enzymes
Term
What function does the uvula serve, according to Mazurkie? (Ch. 25, pg. 662)
Definition
None
Term
What does saliva do and what are the salivary glands? (Ch. 25, pg. 663-4)
Definition

Saliva helps to kill bacteria even when no foo is present. The 3 salivary glands are:

  1. Parotid salivary glands - largest, toward the back of the oral cavity
  2. Sublingual salivary glands - covered by a mucous membrane, found at the floor of the mouth below the tongue
  3. Submandibular salivary glands - also found in the floor of the mouth, further posterior
Term
Describe the make up of a tooth.  What are the 4 types of teeth? What does the amplitude of types signify? (Ch. 25, pg. 664)
Definition

At the ultimate center, blood vessels and nerves travel through the "root canal."  The next layer is dentine, the hardest substance in the body. The outer layer is enamel.  The top of the tooth above the gums (givgina) is known as the crown, the part touching the gingiva is the neck, and the long portions into the bone are the roots.

The 4 types of teeth are:

  1. Incisors - blade-shaped at the front of mouth
  2. Cuspids - canines which have pointed tips for tearing & slashing (fangs)
  3. Bicuspids - aka premolars, have flattened crowns with ridges used for crushing, mashing, & grinding
  4. Molars - large flattened crownswith prominent ridges for crushing & grinding

The many types signify that we are omniverous

Term
What is the difference between a child's teeth and an adult's teeth? (Ch. 25, pg. 666)
Definition
A child has 20 teeth, all of which are deciduous (the fall out), while an adult has 32 permanent teeth (3 addition molars enter on each side of the lower and upper jaws)
Term
Explain the process of swallowing, split into the 3 phases. (Ch. 25, pg. 666-7, fig. 25.8)
Definition
  1. Buccal Phase - compression of bolus against hard palate, retraction of tongue forces bolus into the pharynx. This phase is the only one that is voluntary
  2. Pharyngeal phase - once the bolus reaches the oropharynx, involuntary reflexes take control. Elevation of the larynx & folding of the epiglottis direct the bolus past the closed glottis into the esophagus
  3. Esophageal phase - after passing through the now-open upper esophageal sphincter, peristalsis pushes the bolus along the esophagus. The lower esophageal sphincter allows the bolus into the stomach
Term
Describe the esophagus. (Ch. 25, pg. 667)
Definition
The esophagus is a hollow muscular tube posterior to the trachea that serves to transport foods & liquids from the pharynx to the stomach
Term
What the the 3 major functions of the stomach? (Ch. 25, pg. 668)
Definition
  1. Bulk storage of ingested food
  2. mechanical breakdown of ingested food
  3. Chemical digestion of ingested foor through the disruption of chemical bonds by acids and enzymes
Term
What are the 4 regions of the stomach? (Ch. 25, pg. 662)
Definition
  1. Cardia  - where the esophagus contacts the stomach
  2. Fundus - the superior portion, above the gastroesophageal junction
  3. Body - the area from the fundus to the posterior edge of the stomach
  4. Pylorus - the "curve of the J", the portion which is to the right side of the body (in anatomical position) connecting to the small intestine
Term
What are rugae and what is their purpose in the stomach? (Ch. 25, pg. 671)
Definition
Rugae are prominent logitudinal folds, which in the stomach permit expansion of the gastic lumen since the epithelial lining itself cannot stretch.
Term
Describe the musculature of the stomach. (Ch. 25, pg. 671)
Definition
In addition to the usual circular & longitudinal layers of the muscularis externa, the stomach has an extra layer, the oblique layer.  The extra layer of smooth muscle strengthens the stomach wall & perform the mixing & churning essential to the formation of chyme.
Term
What organ plays the primary role in digestion and absorption of nutrients? (Ch. 25, pg. 673)
Definition
Small intestine
Term
Describe the regions of the small intestine. (Ch. 25, pg. 674)
Definition
  • Duodenum - shortest & widest segment, connecting stomach to small intestine, the "mixing bowl" which receives chyme from the stomach and digestive secretions from the liver & pancreas
  • Jejunum - superior portion of the winding intestine, where the majority of chemical digestion & nutrient absorption occurs.
  • Ileum - inferior portion of the winding intestine, which ends at the ileocecal valve, a sphincter that controls the flow of materials from the ileum into the cecum of the large intestine, and is important in keeping certain bacteria out of the small intestine
Term
What are the 3 major functions of the large intestine? (Ch. 25, pg. 677)
Definition
  1. The reabsorption of water and electrolytes & compaction of intestinal contents into feces
  2. The absorption of important vitamins produced by bacterial action
  3. The storing of fecal material before defecation
Term
Describe the regions of the large intestine. (Ch. 25, pg. 677)
Definition
  • Cecum - pouch at the entrance from the small intextine to the large, where materials first arrive.
  • Colon - The entire length of the large intestine. It has a larger diameter but shorter length than the small intestine. The ascending colon travels up from the cecum, and turns to the left side of the body at the right colic (hepatic) flexure. The portion traveling to the left side of the body is the transverse colon, which turns to travel downward at the left colic (splenic) flexure. The portion traveling to the inferior of the abdomen is the descending colon, which curves back toward the center line of the body at the sigmoid flexure. This "curve of the J" is known at the sigmoid colon.
  • Rectum - the last portion, which is explandable to hold fecal matter. At the bottom of the rectum is the anal canal, ending in the anus and internal & external anal sphincters (external is voluntary, internal is not)
Term
Explain the main functions of the liver, as an accessory organ of the digestive system. (Ch. 25, pg. 681)
Definition
  • Metabolic regulation - storage of energy reserves, iron, vitamins, synthesis of cholesterol
  • Hematological regulation - synthesis of plasma proteins & clotting factors, blood storage, phagocytosis of damaged rbc's
  • Synthesis & secretion of bile - helps to buffer the acids in chyme that enters the small intestine
Term
What is the purpose of the gallbladder? Describe its make up. (Ch. 25, pg. 683-5)
Definition
The gallbladder stores & concentrates bile before its excretion.  It is found on the posterior surface of the liver. The neck connects the body to the cystic duct, where storage occurs.
Term
What are the functions of the pancreas as an accessory organ of the digestive system? (Ch. 25, pg. 686)
Definition
The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice, which contains enzymes to break down carbs and proteins.  The pancreatic ducts secrete buffers (primarily sodium bicarbonate) to neutralize the acid in chyme & stabilize the pH of the intestinal contents
Term
What changes occur in the digestive system as a result of aging? (Ch. 25, pg. 687)
Definition
  1. Rate of epithelial stem cell division declines along the absorption surfaces lining the tract
  2. Smooth muscle tone decreases (weaker peristaltic contractions)
  3. Effects of cumulative damage become apparent (such as tooth decay)
  4. Cancer rates increase
  5. Changes in other systems have an effect in the digestive system
Term
What are the primary functions of the urinary system? (Ch. 26, pg. 694)
Definition
  1. Regulating plasma concentrations of sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium & other ions by controlling the quantities lost in urine
  2. Regulating blood volume & blood pressure by adjusting the volume of water lost in urine, and releasing erythropoietin & renin
  3. Contributing to the stabilization of blood pH
  4. Conserving valuble nutrients by preventing their excretion in urine
  5. Eliminating organic waste products, especially nitrogenous wastes such as urea and uric acid
  6. Synthesizing calcitriol, a hormone derivative of vitamin D3 that stimulates calcium ion absorption in the intestinal epithelium
  7. Assisting the liver in detoxifing poisons &, during starvation, deaminating amino acids so other tissues can break them down.
Term
Explain the superficial anatomy of a kidney. (Ch. 26, pg. 694-6)
Definition
Each kidney has a renal cortex (the outer rim), a renal medulla (the pyramids and renal columns) and together these make up one of the 6-18 renal lobes. Urine production occurs in the lobes, and drainage occurs via the minor calyx connected to each lobe.  Minor calyces connect to a larger major calyx and these combine to form the renal pelvis which connects to a ureter. 
Term
Explain the anatomy and function of a nephron in the kidney. (Ch. 26, pg. 698-701)
Definition
Nephrons, the basic structural & functional unit of the kidney, have a spherical renal corpuscle, which contains the capillary network known as the glomerulus, a proximal convoluted tubule, a nephron loop (aka loop of Henle), a distal convoluted loop, and a collecting system. Nephrons filter the blood plasma and pass he resulting glomeruler filtrate out to the renal pelvis.  The 2 types of nephrons are cortical nephrons (everything is in the cortex except the collecting system) & juxtamedullary nephrons (nephron loop & collecting system in medulla)
Term
Explain the entry & exit of blood into the kidneys. (Ch. 26, pg. 698)
Definition

Artery entry: Renal artery > segmental artery > interlobar artery > arcuate artery > cortical radiate artery > afferent arteriole > glomerulus > efferent arteriole

 

Vein exit: Peritubular capillary > venule > interlobular vein > arcuate vein > interlobar vein > renal vein

 

NOTE: glomerulus is not the end of the arterial chain; efferent arterioles carry blood from the kidney but still considered arterial chain because in nephron

 

Term
How does the structure of the glomerulus facilitate filtration? (Ch. 26, pg. 702)
Definition
The walls of the glomerulus network are fenestrated (some are sinusoids) so that plasma is able to move out of the capillary into the nephron
Term
What structures are responisble for transport, storage and elimination of urine? (Ch. 26, pg. 704)
Definition
Ureters (tubes connecting kidneys to bladder), urinary bladder, urethra
Term
What are the differences between male and female urethra? (Ch. 26, pg. 706-7)
Definition
In females, the urethra is very short, while in males it must travel the length of the penis and also starts at the top rather than bottom of bladder and is therefore much longer.  In addition, the male urethra is not solely for urine.
Term
What do the rugae in the bladder allow for? (Ch. 26, pg. 706)
Definition
Expansion for the storage of urine
Term
How does aging affect the urinary system? (Ch. 26, pg. 708)
Definition
  1. A decline in the number of functional nephrons
  2. A reduction in glomerular filtration
  3. Reduced sensitivity to ADH, resulting in less reabsorption of water and sodium ions
  4. Problems with the micturition reflex (peeing)
Term
What is the primary male reproductive organ? Describe its function, and the resultant anatomy. (Ch. 27 pg. 715-8)
Definition
The primary male reproductive organ is the pair of testes, which produce sperm.  The exact location of production is the seminiferous tubules, where both parts of meiosis happen.  Normal sperm development requires a temperature around 2oF lower than the rest of the body.  Therefore, the testes are outside the body, and have the cremaster muscle, which moves the testes towards or away from the body to maintain the correct temp.
Term
What are the accessory organs of the male reproductive system and their main functions? (Ch. 27 pg. 722)
Definition

Epididymis (sperm storage), ductus (vas) deferens, urethra, penis, and accessory glands.

The main functions are storage, nourishment, maturation & transport of spermatozoa. 

The 3 accessory glands are the seminal ("awaken" flagella of sperm), prostate (antibiotic functions), and bulbo-urethral (helps to neutralize urinary acid in urethra)

Term
Describe the basic superficial anatomy of the penis. (Ch. 27 pg. 725)
Definition
The root of the penis is the fixed portion that attaches the penis to the ramus of the ischia. The body (shaft) of the penis is the tubular, movable portion.  The glans of the penis is the expanded distal end that surrounds the external urethral orifice.
Term
What is the primary female reproductive organ? (Ch. 27 pg. 727)
Definition
The ovaries are the primary organ of the female reproductive system.
Term
Describe the ovarian cycle, starting with the primordial ovarian follicle made up of the primary oocyte and follicle cells. (Ch. 27 pg. 730)
Definition

Step 1: Activated by FSH, a number of primordial follicles develop into primary follicles

Step 2: Only a few of the primary follicles develop into secondary follicles

Step 3: 8-10 days into cycle, the ovaries usually contain only 1 secondary follicle that will proceed with development. by the 10th-14th days, this single follicle has developed into a tertiary follicle. Until now, the primary oocyte was suspended in prophase of meiosis I, and the (now secondary) oocyte beings meiosis II. (Meiosis II will only be completed in fertilization occurs)

Step 4: A rise in LH levels & estrogen triggers ovulation.

Step 5:  The corpus luteum is formed, where lipids are used to synthesize progestins, causing continuation of the uterine preparation

Step 6: Unless pregnancy occurs, the corpus luteum disintegrates and the leftover scar tissue forms the corpus albicans

Term
What happens during menses? (Ch. 27 pg. 735)
Definition
The functional layer of the endometrium of the uterus breaks down and exits via the vagina
Term
Describe the environment of the vagina and the reason for this. (Ch. 27 pg. 738)
Definition
The metabolic activiy of resident bacteria in the vagina create an acidic environment, which restricts the growth of many pathogenic organisms. The acidic environment also inhibits sperm motility, which is why buffers are present in semen
Term
Describe menopause & its male equvilent, climacteric. (Ch. 27 pg. 741)
Definition
  • Female menopause is the time when ovulation & menstruation cease, typically occuring at age 45-55.  It is accompanied by a sharp rise in GnRH, FSH & LH, while concentrations of estrogen and progesterone decline.
  • Male climacteric occurs more gradually, with testosterone levels beginning to decline and LH & FSH levels increasing between age 50 and 60.  Sperm production continues, but sexual activity declines due to the drop in testosterone
Term
Where does normal fertilization occur? (Ch. 28 pg. 748)
Definition
Ampulla of the uterine tube.
Term
At what sperm count is a man considered sterile and why? (Ch. 28 pg. 748)
Definition
A sterile man produces fewer than 20million sperm per ejaculation. This level is considered sterile because too few sperm are likely to reach the oocyte, and more than one or two are needed to fertilize.
Term
Describe the steps in fertilization and preparation for cleavage. (Ch. 28 pg. 749, fig. 28.1)
Definition
  • At ovulation, a secondary oocyte surrounded by a corona radiata is released
  • Enzymes from multiple sperm create gaps in the corona radiata & 1 sperm makes contacts with the oocyte membrane. Immediate changes in the plasmalemma prevent additional entry of sperm. Membrane fusion occurs, which triggers oocyte activation & completion of meiosis.
  • The sperm is absorbed into the cytoplasm and both sperm and egg form pronucleii. Spindle fibers appear in preparation for the first cleavage division
  • Metaphase begins, and over about 30 hours the spindle fibers pull apart the duplicate chromosomes, completing the first mitotic division (cleavage)
Term
In general, what happens during each of the trimesters of pregnancy? (Ch. 28 pg. 749)
Definition
  • 1st trimester - the period of embryonic & early fetal development, when the rudiments of all major organ systems appear.
  • 2nd trimester - the time when the organs & organ systems complete most of their development. By the end, the fetus looks distinctly human
  • 3rd trimester - rapid fetal growth, and most of the organ systems become fully functional
Term
Explain the first nine days after fertilization. (Ch. 28 pg. 751)
Definition
Two cleavages occur the first 2 days resulting in 4 cells.  By day three it has become a solid ball of cells, called an early morula. By day four, the spherical morula is the same size, but contains more (smaller) cells. By the 6th days of cleavage, the ball becomes hollow, and is now termed a blastocyst, with an outer trophoblast layer & and inner cell mass.  During day 7, the blastocyst adheres to the uterine lining (implantation). The trophoblasts divide rapidly, creating a large anchoring to the lining, called the syncytial trophoblast by day 9.
Term
Explain what happens from 10 days after fertilization through the end of the first trimester. (Ch. 28 pg. 753)
Definition
By day 10, the blastodisc (previously the inner cell mass) has 2 cell layers, the epiblast facing the amniotic cavity and the hypoblast facing the fluid in the hollow space, now the yolk sac. Around day 12, a 3rd layer forms between the epi- and hypoblast.  The 3 layers are now termed ectoderm (was epiblast), mesoderm (new layer) & endoderm (was hypoblast). During week 2, the amnion is formed from ecto- & mesoderm (will be filled with cushioning fluid). By week 3, the chorion has formed, and it will eventually form the placenta(allowing for a blood barrier). During week 4, the head & tail folds form, starting embryogenesis, as the embryo is now separated from the rest of the blastodisc. By the end of the first trimester, basic organ formation occurs (organogenesis)
Term
Describe the 3 stages of labor. (Ch. 28 pg. 760-2)
Definition
  1. Dilation stage - cervix dialates and fetus begins to move down the cervical canal
  2. Expulsion stage (I&II) - fetus begins to pass through the vagina and out of the body (once it passes the hip bones, ex. stage II)
  3. Placental stage - the placenta is ejected from the mother's body
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