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Digestive System & Metabolism
Flash cards for my midterm in A&P3 on the Digestive System and metabolism
184
Anatomy
Not Applicable
10/31/2011

Additional Anatomy Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
General Layers of the Mucosa of the GI Tract
Definition

1 - Epithelium

2 - Lamina Propria

3 - Muscularis Mucosa (Thin smooth muscle layer)

Term
Mesentery (Location & Function)
Definition
Fan shaped folds of peritoneum that bind small intestines to posterior abdominal wall
Term
Greater Omentum (Location, Function and What It Contains)
Definition

Double layer hanging over itself (4 layers) of the peritoneum hanging like an apron over transverse colon, small intestines, lateral and inferior borders of the stomach. 

 

Contains large amounts of adipose tissue and lymph nodes. 

 

Functions as an energy reserve. Provides insulation and padding for abdominal organs. And reduces heat loss in the area. 

Term
Serosa of the GI Tract (below diaphragm)
Definition
Serous membrane covering organs below diaphragm (outer covering)
Term
Adventita (Location & Function)
Definition

Located above on structures above the diaphragm and the rectum. 

 

Functions to attach structures to other adjacent structures to hold them in place.

Term
Submucosa of the Esophogus
(contents and what order it is)
Definition

Deep to the muscosa, 2nd layer.

Contains areoloar Connective Tissue w/ blood vessels and esophageal glands.

Term
Lesser Omentum
(Location & Function)
Definition

Double sheet of peritneum folded over stomach and duodenum, attaching from the liver.

 

Function to stablize the stomach and provide access route for blood vessels to and from the liver. 

Term
Muscosa of the Esophagus 
(Epithelium Type, and other layers it contains) 
Definition

1 - Stratified Squamous Epithelium

 

2 - Lamina Propria

 

3 - Muscularis Mucosa

Term
Stages of Swallowing 
(Name and Description of each stage)
Definition

1 - Voluntary Stage - Bolus pushed into oropharynx by tongue pushing it against hard pallate. 

 

2 - Phayngeal Stage - Nasopharynx is Sealed off by the soft pallate. Pharynx is elevated, which results in sealing off the glottis by the epiglottis. Bolus is directed down over closed glottis by pharyngeal peristalsis and into the esphogus.

 

3 - Esophogeal Stage - After bolus is pushed into esphogus through the upper esophogeal sphincter, it is pushed by esophogeal peristalsis down the length of the esphogus through the lower esphogeal sphincter and into the stomach.

Term

Muscularis Layer of Esophagus

(Layers and type of tissue)

Definition

Inner circular muscle layer

Outer longitudinal layer

 

Upper 1/3 is composed entirely of skeletal muscle

Middle 1/3 is composed of a mixture of skeletal muscle and smooth muscle 

Lower 1/3 is composed entirely of smooth muscle

Term

Cephalic Phase of the Regulation of Gastric Secretion and Motility

(How is it initiated? What is the neuronal pathway? What is the net effect?)

Definition

First phase in the regulation of gastric secretions of motility.

 

Sight, smell, taste or thought of food initiates it. 

 

Sense receptors stimulate Cerebral Cortex, which triggers medulla oblongata, which sends a signal down parasympathetic neurons ot the submucosal plexus of the stomach. 

 

Net Effects -

1 - Increases stomach motility.

2- Stimulates gastric glands to secrete pepsinogen, HCl and mucous into stomach.

3 - Stimulates secretion of gastrin into blood. 

Term

Gastric Phase of the Regulation of Gastric Secretion and Motility

(How is it initiated? How is it continued? How is it inhibiated? What are the net effects?)

Definition

Once food enters stomach strech receptors are stimulated by the distenstion of the stomach (from food entering it) and chemoreceptors are stimulated by the lowered pH levels in the stomach (from food entering and buffering the acid)

 

These 2 things activate a neural feedback loop that continues gastrin (continued secretion is stimulated by strech receptors activating neurons which then release ACh, which stimulates G Cells to release Gastrin) and HCl secretions as well as  continued increasing motility of stomach that were initiated in the cephalic phase. 

This continues until the streach receptors notice a relief of the distension of the stomach (from food that has been mixed to chyme in stomach leaving stomach and entering duodenum) and the chemoreceptors of the stomach noticing a lowered pH level (from food already being digested and not buffering the acid as much or at all, as well as less food being in the stomach)  

 

Net effects - 

1 - Creates optimum acidic enviroment for digestion.

2 - Continues the transition of the ingested food to chyme. 

3 - Starts gastric emptying. 

Term

Gastric Emptying

(Which phases of regulation is it overlapping between? What intiates it? How does it happen? What is the net effect?)

Definition

Overlapping between gastric and intestinal phases  of the regulation of gastric secretion and motilit (events happening at the same time).

 

Strech receptors, partially digested protein, alcohol and caffeine intiate gastrin secretion to increase and stimulate parasympathetic nerve impulses. 

 

Increased gastrin secretion and nerve impulses stimulate the contraction the lower esphageal sphinctor, increase stomach motility, and relax the pyloric sphinctor. 

 

Net effect - Emptying of chyme into the duodenum of the small intestine. 

Term

Intestinal Phase of the Regulation of Gastric Secretion and Motility

(How is it activated? What does it inhibit and how?  What is the net effect?)

Definition
Term

Upper Esophageal Sphincter

(Function & Location)

Definition

Narrowing of esophagus at the entrance to esophagus. 

 

Regulates the entrance of food into the esophagus. 

Term

Chemical Digestion Of Lipids

(Describe the enzymes in each area of the GI tract that work to break down triglycerides into monoglycerides and free fatty acids) 

Definition

Lingual lipase secreted by the tongue starts the break down of triglycerides.
Lingual lipase continues to work in stomach b/c it still works in acidic enviroments.

Gastric lipase is also added to the equation in the stomach. Both lingual and gastric lipase work to begin the break down of triglycerides. 

 

Most digestion occurs in small intestines. Bile salts from the bile that was stored and concentrated in gallbladder and created in the liver emulsify tryiglycerides so that the surface area of the globules is greater, making it easier to pancreatic lipase to cleave the remaining triglycerides into free fatty acids and monoglycerides.

 

The fatty acids and monoglycerides are then absorbed in the small intestines.

Term

Chemical Digestion of RNA and DNA

 

Definition

Pancreatic juice contains ribonucleases and deoxyribonucleases that cleave RNA and DNA into their subunit - nucleotides in the small intestines

 

Further digestion by nucleotidases and phosphatases (both brush border enzymes) breaks the nucleotides down into pentose, nitrogenous bases and phosphates. 

Term

Amino Acid, Dipeptide and Tripeptide Absorption

(Describe the mechanism of absorption, What percentage of overall consumed proteins end up being absorbed? Of that percentage, what is the breakdown percentage of the sources that it came from?)

Definition

Absorbed through active transport. 

 

95 - 98% of the overall proteins are absorbed. Of that, 50% come from food and 50% come from digestive juices and dead cells.

Term

Absorption of Monosaccharides

(What is the mechanism of absorption? How much of ingested is actually absorbed?)

Definition

Faciliated diffusion or secondary active transport coupled to Na+ is the mechanism of absorption. 

 

All (100%) ingested monosaccharides are usually absorbed. 

Term

Lipid Absorption

(Describe stages required to absorb fatty acids)

Definition

Bile emulifies fatty acids and turns them into micelles. Stays in this form as they are taken to apicial surface of epithelial cells where they diffuse via simple diffusion into cell. 

Within epithelial cell monoglycerides are further digested into fatty acids and glycerol and recombine into tryglycerides that are aggregated into globules (chylomicrons) which enter lacteals, empty into lymph nodes and eventually enter venous blood.

Liver cells or adipose tissue cells remove chylomicrons, break them down again, and transport them to whereever they will be stored or used.

Term

Absorption of Electrolytes

(Na+, Bicarbonate, Cl-, I-, Nitrate Ions, Fe+, K+ and Mg+)

Definition

Na+ actively transported via Na+/K+ pumps after moving in via diffusion and secondary transport.

 

Bicarbonate, Cl-, I- and nitrate ions passively follow Na+ or diffuse via active transport. 

 

Fe+, K+, Mg+ and phosphate ions are actively transported.

Term

Peridontal Ligament

(Location and Function)

Definition
Extends from dentin of root of the tooth to the bone in the alveolus. Functions to anchor teeth in place and as shock absorbers during chewing.
Term
What are teeth composed of?
Definition
Layer of dentin surronding a pulp cavity. The crown of the tooth also has a protective layer of enamal covering the dentin.
Term
Absorption of Fat-Soluble Vitamins A, D, E and K. 
Definition
Absorbed via simple diffusion while dissolved in lipids. 
Term
Absorption of Water Soluble Vitamin C and the B Vitamins (except vitamin B12)
Definition
Absorb via simple diffusion across digestive epithelium.
Term
Absorption of Vitamin B12
Definition
Combines with intrinsic factor in stomach and absorbed in ileum via active transport. 
Term
What is Pancreatic Juice Composed Of?
Definition
Water, salts, sodium bicarbonate and digestive enzymes. 
Term

Exocrine Cells of the Pancreas

(What are the called? What do they produce?)

Definition
The exocrine cells of the pancreas are called Acinar Cells and they produce pancreatic juice. 
Term

Endocrine Cells of the Pancreas

(What are they called? What do they produce?)

Definition
They are called Islets of Langerhands and they produce and secrete the blood glucose regulatory hormones insulin and glucoagon.
Term
Ileocecal Valve
Definition
Mucous Membrane which allows material to move from the ileum into the Large Intestines
Term
Muscosa of Small Intestines
Definition

Contain Mucosal folds (called villi) with microscopic folds of microvilli covering those.

 

Also deep crevices between villi called the crypts of Liberkuhn with paneth and enetroendocrine cells at the bottom of these crypts. 

 

The lamina propria contains blood vessels and lacteals that function to absorb nutrients and deliever them to the liver. 

Term
Sections of the Small Intestines
Definition

Duodenum - first 12 inches (also the shortest section)

 

Jejunum - middle 1 meter

 

Ileum - last 2 meters (also the longest section)

Term

Lacteals

(What are they? Location and Function)

Definition
Located in basal lamina of the mucosa of the small intestines. They are lymph capillaries that transport materials that cannot enter blood capillaries
Term

Crypts of Liberkuhn

(What are they? Location? And what kind of cells do they contain?

Definition

Deep crevices between the villi in the small intestines.

 

They contain paneth cells and enetroendocrine cells 

Term

Entroendocrine Cells

(What do they Secrete? Where are they located?)

Definition

Located at the bottom of the crypts of Liberkuhn in the small intestines. 

 

They secrete secretin, CCK and Glucose-Independent Insulinotropic Peptide (GIP)

Term

Brunner's Glands

(Where are they located? What do they Secrete?)

Definition

Located in the submuscosa of the duodenum of the small intestines.

 

They produce alkaline mucous when acidic chyme enters the duodenum to neutralize it and protect the walls of the small intestines. 

Term

Paneth Cells

(Where are they located? What do they produce?)

Definition

Located at the bottom of the Crypts of Lieberkuhn in the small intestines.

 

They produce Lysozyme.

Term

Segmentations

(What is it? What does it do?)

Definition
Peristalsis within the small intestines that mix chyme with digestive juices and slowly moves it forward rom the duodenum tot he ileum. 
Term
What Happens During Defecation?
Definition
Feces moves into rectum and strech receptors signal the sacral spinal cord to contract muscles of the rectum and relax internal anal sphincter, also sends signal for the need to defecate. Once voluntary defecation occurs, external anal sphincter is relaxed and feces is pushed out. 
Term
What is the composition of feces?
Definition
Feces is made up of water, inorganic salts, sloughed epithelial cells, bacteria, bacterial by-products and undigested material. 
Term
Chemical Digestion and Absorption in Large Intestines
Definition

Final Digestion occurs via bacterial action. 

 

Final Absorption of things that remain such as water, bile salts and vitamins.

Term
Gastrocolic Reflex
Definition
The mass peristalsis during or immediantly after a meal to make room in GI tract for incoming food.
Term

Haustral Churning

(What is it? How does it work?)

Definition

How fecal matter is moved in the colon.

 

Each Haustra is relaxed until it is full, then when there is enough distension, it squeezes and pushes contents into the next haustra.

Term
Epiplotic Pouches
Definition
Small fat pouches attached to teniae coli on colon.
Term

Haustra 

(What are they? Function?)

Definition
Pouches in colon. Permits expansion and elongation of the colon, as well as moving matter along the colon. 
Term
Teniae Coli
Definition

Portions of thickened longitudinal muscularis that run along the length of the large intestines.

 

They pull the colon into the pouches known as haustra.

Term

Submusosa of the Large Intestines

(what special structure(s) are in it?)

Definition
Contains peyer's patches.
Term

Mucosa of the Large Intestines 

(What special features?)

Definition

No villi or circular folds. 

 

Epithelium is simple columnar epithelium.

 

Contains Crypts of Lieberkuhn (flat surface except for this)

 

Has abundent goblet cells. 

 

Peyer's patches present in basal lamina.

Term

Internal Anal Sphincter

(What is it? Under voluntary or Involuntary control?)

Definition

Circular muscle layer of muscularis in the rectum that allows feces to move into anal canal.

 

Not under voluntary control. 

Term

External Anal Sphincter

(What is it? Voluntary or Involuntary Control?)

Definition

Ring of skeletal muscle fibers encircling the anus.

 

Under voluntary control.

Term
Anus
Definition
The exit of the Anal Canal
Term

Rectum 

(Functions)

Definition
Temporary storage of feces. Movement of material into rectum triggers the urge to defecate. 
Term
Segments of the Colon
Definition

Ascending

Transverse

Descending

Sigmoid

Term

Cecum

(What is it? Where is it? What does it attach to?)

Definition

First part of the large intestines. Material entering large intestines from ileum enters here through the ileocecal valve. 

 

Open end of cecum attached to the colon.

Term

Appendix

(Location and Function)

Definition

Hangs off of cecum. 

 

Functions to repopulate the bacteria of the colon in case they are all wiped out. 

Term
Functions of the Large Intestines
Definition

Completion of Nutrient Absorption

Production of certain vitamins

Formation of feces

Explusion of feces from the body

Term
Mesocolon
Definition
Binds Large intestines to the posterior abdominal wall.
Term
Mastication
Definition
Chewing - reducing food to a bolus
Term
Dental Formula
Definition

2, 1, 2, 3

 

In each quadrant of mouth (in adults) there are:

 

2 Incisors

1 Cuspid/Canine

2 premolars/bicuspid

3 molars

 

Total of 32 teeth in mouth.

Term

Deciduous Teeth

(What are they? How many in total? When are they aquired? When are they lost?)

Definition

They are baby teeth. There are 20 teeth total.

They begin to grow in at around 6 months of age and continue growing in until about 2 years old. 

They begin to be lost at 6 years old and continue to be lost until about 12 years old.

Term

Molars

(Shape, # of roots, Function)

Definition

Large, flattened crowns with prominent ridges.

 

They crush, mash and grind food during mastication

 

Have 3 or more roots.

Term

Biscuspids/Premolars

(shape, # of roots, function)

Definition

Flattened crowns with prominent ridges

 

They crush, mash and grind food during mastication

 

Have 1-2 roots.

Term

Cuspids/Canines

(shape, # of roots, function)

Definition

Conical shaped with a sharp ridgeline and pointed tip

 

They tear/slash food during mastication.

 

Have one root.

Term

Incisors

(shape, # of roots, functions)

Definition

Blade shaped

 

Useful for clipping or cutting food during mastication

 

Have 1 root

Term
Root Canal
Definition
Narrow tunnel at the root of tooth that serves as an opening for blood vessels and nerves supplied to pulp cavity.
Term

Dentes

And what are they attached to?

Definition

Teeth

 

Attached to mandibular and maxillary alveolar sockets

Term
Neck of Tooth
Definition
Area of the tooth that is at the gumline
Term
Root of Tooth
Definition
Area of tooth below the gumline
Term
Crown of tooth
Definition
Area of tooth above the gumline
Term
Gingivae
Definition
Gums
Term
Functions of Saliva
Definition

1 - Flushes oral surfaces to keep moist and clean

2 - Buffers pH of mouth

3 - Prevents build up of acids produced from bacterial action

4 - Controls bacteria populations because of lysozyme and antibodies

5 - Lubricates mouth and food

6 - Moistens food

7 - Initates chemical digestion of carbs

8 - Dissolves chemicals to stimulate taste buds

Term

Mucins

(What are they? What is there function?)

Definition
Glycoprotein in saliva responsible for it's lubrication affect.
Term
Composition of Saliva
Definition

99.5% water - which is a medium for dissolving chemcials in food for tasting and starting digestive reactions

 

0.5% Solutes - which include Na+, K+, Cl-, Bicarbonate Ions, Phosphate, Dissolved Gases, Organic Substrates, Lysozyme, and Salivary Amylase

Term

Sublingual Salivary Glands

(Location, Secretions, Where it Empties, Secretion account for what percentage of saliva?)

Definition

Located under tounge.

 

Secretes a mucous secretion and a serous secretion.

 

Secretions empty along either side of lingual frenulum.

 

Secretions account for 5% of saliva.

Term

Submandibular Salivary Glands

(Location, Secretions, Where Secretions Empty. Accounts for what percentage of saliva?)

Definition

Located along the inner surface of mandible.

 

Secretes a serous secretion and a mucus secretion. 

 

Secretions empty along both sides of the lingual frenulum. 

 

Secretions account for 70% of saliva.

Term

Parotid Salivary Glands

(Location, Secretion Type, Where Secretions Empty. Accounts for what percentage of saliva?)

Definition

Located inferior to zygomatic arch.

 

Secretes a serous secretion.

 

Secretions empty into vestibule.

 

Secretions accounts for 25% of saliva

Term
Lower Esophageal Sphincter
Definition
Narrowing in lower esophagus. 
Term
Regions of the Stomach
Definition

Cardia

Fundus

Body 

Pyloris

Term
Pyloric Sphincter
Definition
Regulates release of chyme into duodenum
Term

Mucosa of the Stomach

(Special Features)

Definition

Epithelium is Simple Columnar Epithelium

Lamina Propria

Muscularis Muscosa

 

Epithelial cells form gastric pits with gastric glands at the bottom.

Term

Muscularis of the Stomach

(Special Features)

Definition

Inner oblique layer

Middle circular layer

Outer longitudinal layer

Term

Chief Cells

(Location and Secretion Type)

Definition

Located at the base of the gastric gland

 

Produces pepsinogen and Gastic Lipase

Term

Parietal Cells

(Location and Secretion Type)

Definition

Secrete Intrinsic Factor and HCl

 

Located in the Proximal Portions of the Gastric Glands

Term

D Cells

(Location and Secretions)

Definition

Located in pyloric glands in pyloric antrum

 

Producea and secretes somatostatin

Term

G Cells

(Location and Secretions)

Definition

Located in pyloric antrum in Gastric Pits of stomach

 

Produce and Secrete Gastrin

Term
How Parietal Cells Create HCl
Definition

They secrete H+ and Cl- seperately. 

 

1) CO2 diffuses into cell, combines with H2O and forms carbonic acid (H2CO3) 

2) Carbonic Acid dissociates into a bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) and a hydrogen Ion (H+). Bicarbonate Ion moves into blood in exchange for a Chloride Ion (Cl-). Chloride Ion diffuses into lumen of Stomach.

3) H+ (from the dissocation of carbonic acid previously mentioned) diffuses into lumen of stomach in exchange for a pottasium ion (K+)

Term
Functions of Acid in Stomach
Definition

1 - Kills Microbes

2 - Denatures Proteins

3 - Stimulates pancreatic secretions

4 - Activates pepsinogen to it's active form, pepsin

Term

Absorptive State

(What Happens in this state? What is the state of blood glucose in this state? How does body respond?)

Definition

Ingested nutrients enter into bloodstream and a dealt with in accordance to the current needs of the body. 

 

Blood glucose levels are high in this state, thus pancreas in stimulated by glucose-dependent insolinotropic peptide (GIP) to secrete insulin. Insulin then increases enzyme activity for anabolism and storage of nutrients. 

Term
What Happens to Glucose in Absorptive State? 
Definition

Can be used to create ATP (glycolysis, kreb's cycle and electron transport chain).

Excess stored in liver as glycogen

Or can be turned into fatty acids or triglycerides to be stored in liver. Although some of them are packaged into VLDL and taken to adipose tissue to be stored.

Term
What happens to lipids in the absorptive state?
Definition

Most stored in adipose tissue. 

Term
What happens to Amino Acids in Absorptive State?
Definition

Most deaminated to keto acids in liver, which can then enter the Kreb's Cycle to produce ATP, or undergo glucogenesis or lipogenesis. 

 

Some can be used to synthesis new proteins in liver.

 

Some can be used to synthesis new proteins in body cells for repair. 

Term

Postabsorptive State

(When is body in this state? What is the main goal of this state? Why is this goal important?)

Definition

Absorption of ingested nutrients is complete. 

Main goal = maintain blood glucose levels. 

 

It is important to maintain blood glucose levels because the body needs the glucose to continue functioning.

Term
How does the body maintain blood glucose levels in when in the postabsorptive state?
Definition

- Glycogen stores in liver broken down. 

- Lipolysis

- Glucogenesis using latic acid or amino acids

- Fatty Acid Oxidation

- Oxidation of Amino Acids, Latic Acid, and Ketone Bodies 

- Breakdown of Muscle Glycogen

Term
What blood glucose levels are ideal?
Definition
Between 70-110mg per 110 mL of blood
Term
Glucagon
Definition
Secreted by Pancreas to stimulate gluconeogenesis and glyconeogenesis when blood glucose levels are low. 
Term

Lipogenesis

(What is it? What molecular pathways do Glucose and Amino Acids undergo? What stimulates this process to occur?)

Definition

Synthesizing triglycerides from excessive carbs, proteins and lipids. 

 

Glucose coverted to glycerol

or Glucose converted to acetyl CoA, then converted to fatty acids 

 

Amino Acids converted to Acetyl CoA, which are then converted to tryglycerides.

 

Insulin stimulates this process to occur.

Term

Ketogenesis

(What is it? When does it happen? Where does it happen? What is it used for?)

Definition

Acetyl CoA being used to form ketone bodies in the liver when large amounts of Acetyl CoA are produced.

 

Ketone bodies are then released into blood and travel to skeletal muscles where they are converted back to Acetyl CoA and enter the Kreb's Cycle to produce ATP.

Term

Ketogenesis

(Describe Molecular Process)

Definition

Acetyl CoA molecules combine to form acetoacetic acid.

 

Acetoacetic acid converted to beta-hydroxybutric acid and some acetone (which are what ketone bodies are)

Term

Lipolysis

(What is it? What happens to the products of it? What hormones stimulate this process to happen?)

Definition

Catabolic reaction where triglycerides split into glycerol and fatty acids by the actions of lipases. 

 

Glycerol can be turned into Acetyl-CoA via gluconeogenesis and enter into Kreb's Cycle to produce ATP or undergo ketogenesis.

 

Fatty Acids can undergo beta-oxidation to be turned into acetyl CoA and enter Kreb's Cycle to produce ATP or undergo ketogenesis.

 

Hormone that stimulate this reaction to occur are mainly epinephrine, norepinephrine. But TH and cortisol can also stimulate.

Term
Protein Uses in the Body
Definition

Proteins are never stored.

Amino Acids can be used to synthesize new proteins 

Or oxidized to produce ATP

Term
How are nonesstential amino acids produced?
Definition
By transamination 
Term
How are Amino Acids oxidized to produce ATP?
Definition
Amino Acids converted to Acetyl CoA and amino group removed by the liver. From there they can undergo gluconeogenesis, lipogenesis or ketogenesis.
Term
What are the possible metabolic pathways for glucose-6-phosphate?
Definition

1 - Synthesis of glycogen

2 - Dephosphorylation to glucose and released into blood.

3 - Precursor to ribose-5-phosphate (DNA and RNA)

4 - Glycolysis

Term
What are the possible metabolic pathways for pyruvic acid?
Definition

1 - production of latic acid

2 - production of the amino acid alanine through transamination

3 - gluconeogenesis

Term

High Density Lipoprotein (HDL's)

(Density of protein and cholesterol? What do they do? Good or Bad?)

Definition

Mainly made of protein, some cholesterol.

 

They remove excess cholesterol from the body cells and blood and take to liver for elimination

 

They are considered "Good" cholesterol

Term

Low Densisty Lipoprotein (LDL's)

 

Definition
Term

Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL's)

(Density of protein and cholesterol? What do they do? Good or Bad?)

Definition

Mainly cholesterol, some protein.

 

They are the main cholesterol for cell membrane maintanance. 

 

Excessive cholestoral in and around smooth muscle fibers in arteries can cause heart attacks in plagues get free

 

Considered "Bad" cholesterol.

Term

Very Low Density Lipoproteins (VLDL's)

(Composition? Function?)

Definition

Very little protein, mostly triglycerides and cholesterol. 

 

Made by liver to transport triglycerides synthesized by the liver to adipose tissue for storage.

Term
Chylomicrons
Definition

Lowest Density Lipoprotein

Made of mostly triglycerides with some cholesterol and very little protein.

 

Enter lacteals through GI tract and eventually enter venous blood.

 

Circulate through adipose tissue and fatty acids are cleaved off from it's triglycerides for storage. 

 

Liver cells also remove for storage. 

Term

Gluconeogenesis

(What is it? What hormone stimulate this process to occur under what conditions?)

Definition

Anabolic reaction of creating glucose from proteins and fats

 

Stimulated by corisol and glucagon to occur when the liver's storage of glycogen in low, if you are fasting/starving, or there are not enough carbs and blood glucose is low. 

Term

Glycogenesis

(What is it? What hormones stimulate it to happen under what conditions?)

Definition

Anabolic reaction with glucose in liver and skeletal muscles to store glucose as glycogen.

 

Stimulated by insulin when blood glucose is too high.

Term

Glucose Catabolism

(What are the 4 steps? How many ATP are created in total?)

Definition

Glycolysis

Formation of Acetyl-CoA

Krebs Cycle

Electron Transport Chain

 

36-38 ATP are created

Term
Glucose Uses In Body
Definition

- ATP Production

- Glycogen Syntehsis (glycogenesis)

- Amino Acid Synthesis

- Triglyceride Synthesis (lipogenesis)

Term
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Definition
Removes electrons from organic compounds, passes them through the electron transport chain to molecules of O2 to generate ATP. 
Term
Substrate-Level Phosphorylation
Definition
Transfer of a phosphate group from a phosphorylated metabolic cmpound directly to ADP to generate ATP. 
Term

Oxidation

(Think of OIL)

Definition

Removal of electrons (biologically the loss of H+). Decreases potential energy.

 

Term

Reduction

(Think of RIG)

Definition
Addition of Electrons (biologically is the adding of H+) Increases potential energy.
Term
Anabolism
Definition

A synthesis/building reaction.

 

Synthesizing molecules necessary for life.

Term
Catabolism
Definition

Breakdown reactions

 

Breaking down larger molecules into smaller ones.

Term
Percentage of daily intake that should be proteins?
Definition
10%
Term
What is a complete protein?
Definition
A protein that contains all 9 essential amino acids
Term

How many Essential and Nonessential Amino Acid are there?

 

What is the difference between Essential and Nonessential Amino Acids?

Definition

9 essential amino acids

11 nonessential amino acids

 

Body can synthesis nonessential amino acids. Body cannot synthesis nonessential amino acids.

Term
Unsaturated Tryglyceride Vs Saturated Triglyceride
Definition

A Tryglyceride contains 1 glycerol plus 3 amino acids.

 

Saturated - single convalent bond between carbon atoms of fatty acids

 

Unsaturated - double covalent bond between carbon atoms of fatty acids.

Term

Percentage of Daily Intake that should be Lipids

 

And percentage of that that should be triglycerides and percentage that should be cholesterol and phosphlipids.

Definition

30% of daily intake

 

 

- 95% triglycerides

- 5% cholesterol and phospholipids

Term
Percentage of diet that should be carbs
Definition
60%
Term
Polysaccharides
Definition

Long carb molecules

Built from many monosaccharides

 

ex - starch, glycogen and cellulose

Term
Disaccharides
Definition

2 monosaccharides put together

 

ex - sucrose (table sugar)

Term
Parietal Peritoneum
Definition
Lines walls of abdominopelvic cavity
Term

Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP)

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Definition

Digestive Hormone secreted by duodenum in response to arrival of chyme in stomach

 

Increases blood flow for maximum nutrient absorption, relaxes stomach and increases motility.

Term

Enterocrinin

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Definition

Digestive Hormone secreted by duodenum in response to arrival of chyme from stomach

 

Promotes production of alkaline mucous by submucosal glands of the small intestines to protect small intestine walls from acidic chyme entering from stomach.

Term

Pepsinogen/Pepsin

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do? What activates it?)

Definition

Secreted by chief cells as pepsinogen (inactive form).

 

Acid in lumen of stomach activates it

 

Is a digestive enzyme that breaks down proteins.

Term

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Definition

Digestive hormone secreted by small intestines that stimulates the digestion of fat and proteins by stimulating pancreas to secrete it's digestive enzymes and gallbladder to release bile into the duodenum.

 

Also inhibits gastric secretion of enzymes and acid.

Term

Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP)

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Definition

Digestive hormone secreted by K cells in the duodenum. 

 

Inhibits gastric secretion of enzymes and acid and reduces rate and force of gastric contraction making chyme stay in stomach longer and enter duodenum at a slower pace. 

Term
Peritoneal Cavity
Definition
Between pariteal and visceral peritoneum, contains fluid, lymph + blood vessels and nerves. 
Term

Secretin

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Definition

Secreted in crypts in small intestines. 

 

Regulates pH of entering chyme by stimulating pancreas to secrete pancratic juice that is rich in bicarbonate ions to buffer acid and raise pH of chyme.

Term

Maltase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Definition
Brush border enzyme that splits maltose into glucose.
Term

Sucrase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Definition
Brush border enzyme that splits sucrose into glucose
Term

Lactase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Definition
Brush border enzyme that splits lactose into glucose
Term

Alpha Dextrinase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Definition
Brush border enzyme that cleaves glucose from starch fragments
Term

Ribonuclease

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Definition
Secreated by pancreas, Breaks RNA up into nucleic acids.
Term

Pancreatic Lipase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Definition
Secreted by pancreas, Digests triglycerides.
Term

Deoxyribonuclease

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Definition
Secreted by pancreas, digests DNA into nucleic acids
Term

Elastase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do? What activates it?)

Definition

Secreted by pancreas inactive form

 

Activated by trypsin

 

Digests proteins

Term

Carboxypeptidase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do? What activates it?)

Definition

Secreted by pancreas in inactive form

 

Activated by trypsin.

 

Digests proteins

Term

Chymotrypsin

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do? What activates it?)

Definition

Secreted by pancreas in inactive form

 

Activated by trypsin

 

Digests proteins

Term

Trypsin

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do? What activates it?)

Definition

Secreted by pancreas in inactive form.

 

Once activated by enterokinase it activates other pancreatic protein digesting enzymes

 

Also digests proteins

Term

Enterokinase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Definition
Brush border enzyme that activates trypsinogen
Term

Pancreatic Amylase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Definition
Secreted by pancreas and digests carbohydrates
Term

Somatostatin

(What is it? What does it do?)

Definition
Digestive Hormone that inhibits the release of gastrin. Can be overriden by neural and hormonal stimulation when stomach is preparing for digestion or is already engaged in digestion
Term

Intrinsic Factor

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Definition
Glycoprotein secreted by parietal cells that facilitates absorption of vitamin B12 across intestinal lining.
Term

Gastric Lipase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Definition
Secreted by chief cells, digests lipids
Term

Lingual Lipase

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Definition

Secreted by glands in the tongue

 

Starts digesting tryglycerides.

Term

Gastrin

(What is it? Where is it secreted from? What does it do?)

Definition
Digestive hormone secreted from G cells in pyloric antrum of stomach. Stimulates secretions of parietal and chief cells as well as contractions of gastric wall.
Term

Water Absorption

(How? Where?)

Definition
Occurs via osmosis in small intestines and large intestines
Term
Salivary Amylase
Definition
Enzyme in Saliva that begins digestion of carbs
Term
Chemical Digestion of Carbohydrates
Definition

Salivary amylase starts the digestion, but is inactivated by acid in stomach. 

 

Pancreatic amylase takes over in small intestines.

 

The brush border enzymes: alpha destrinase, sucrase, lactase and maltase also digest specific sugars in small intestines

Term
Chemical Digestion of Protein
Definition

Pepsin cleaves proteins into peptides in stomach.

 

Pancreatic enzymes trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase and elastase continue to break down proteins into peptides in small intestines (each enzyme cleaves a different amino acid bond)

 

Brush border peptidases complete breakdown into single amino acids

Term
Vestibule
Definition
Space between lips and teeth
Term
Labial Frenulum
Definition
Attaches each lip to corresponding gingivae
Term
Intrinstic Tongue Muscles
Definition
Change shape of tongue and assist extrinsic muscles with precise movements
Term
Extrinsic Tongue Muscles
Definition
All gross movments of tonuge
Term
Lingual Frenulum
Definition
Attaches tongue to floor of oral cavity and limits posterior movements.
Term
Monosaccharides
Definition

Simplest sugars

 

ex - glucose, fructose

Term
Falciform Ligament
Definition
Attaches liver to anterior abdominal wall and diaphragm
Term
What Does Bile Do?
Definition
Emulsifies fat - breaks apart large drops of lipids to increase surface area so enzymes can be more affective at digesting them.
Term
Flow of Bile from liver to small intestine
Definition
Bile canaliculi - bile ductules - bile duct in nearest hepatic triad - R/L hepatic ducts - common hepatic duct - cystic duct - gallbladder - common bile duct - pancreatic duct of duodenum
Term

Hepatocytes

What are they? What do they do?

Definition

Liver cells

Adjust circulating levels of nutrients through selective absorption and secretion

Term
Visceral Peritoneum
Definition
Covers some organs and achors them to each other and abdominal wall.
Term

Portal Areas/Hepatic Triad

(Located? Contains? Function?)

Definition

Located on each corner of a hexagonal liver lobule.

 

Contains a branch of the heptaic portal vein, a branch of hepatic artery and a small branch of bile duct.

 

Delivers blood to sinusoids of adjacent liver lobules so hepatocytes and kupffer cells can absorb things from blood and secrete materials that the blood needs. The blood then drains into central vein in center of lobule.

Term

Kupffer Cells

(Where? Function?)

Definition

In liver lobules in sinusoidal lining.

Engulf pathogens, cell debris and damaged blood cells. Store iron, lipids and heavy metals absorbed by digestive tract.

Term
Mechanical Processes in Mouth
Definition
Mastication, saliva moistens and lubricates bolus.
Term
Chemical Processes in Mouth
Definition

Salivary Amylase

Ligual Lipase

Term
Mechanical Processes in pharynx and esophagus
Definition

Swallowing (voluntary, pharyngeal and esophogeal phases) 

 

Esophageal Peristalsis 

Term
Chemical Processes in Pharynx and Esophagus
Definition
Mucous production for lubrication
Term
Mechanical processes of stomach
Definition

Mixing waves churning food and push into duodenum

 

 

Term
Chemical Processes of the Stomach
Definition

HCl

Gastric Lipase (lipid digesting enzyme)

Pepsin (protein digesting enzyme)

Gastrin (hormone)

Term
Mechanical Process of Duodenum
Definition
Segmentations
Term
Chemical Processes of Duodenum
Definition

Brush border enzymes

Secretin (hormone)

GIP (hormone)

VIP (hormone)

CCK (hormone)

Mucous from Brunners gland

Term
Pancreas Chemical Processes
Definition

Trypsin

Chymotrypsin

Pancreatic Lipase

Carboxypeptidase

Elastase

Ribonuclease

Deoxyribonucleases

Bicarbonate 

 

Term
Liver Chemical Processes
Definition

Controls and monitors blood glucose, and fatty acid and amino acid levels

Filters, modifies, and stores/excretes toxins

Filters Blood

Creates Bile

Term
Mechanical Processes of Large Intestine
Definition

Haustral Churning

Defecation

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