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CVA Final Exam
comprehensive final exam
282
Anatomy
Undergraduate 4
04/21/2011

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Term
evolution
Definition
changes in genetic makeup of populations through time
Term
how does Evolution relate to phenotypes?
Definition
phenotype is determined by genotype, therefore as evolution changes genotype, it also affects morphological features (phenotypes)
Term
analogy
Definition
functional similarity among non-homologuous organisms

ex. butterfly and bird wings
Term
homology
Definition
similarity in organs from different organisms as a result of inheritence from a common ancestor
Term
recapitulation
Definition
developmental stages reveal earlier stages from one's ancestry
Term
mosaic evolution
Definition
parts of the body change independently of each other
Term
What was Darwin's theory behind Natural Selection?
Definition
1. gross similarity of island species to mainland forms
2. fossils related to present form but now extinct
3. ability of breeders to select for specific attributes
4. if everything born were to survive resources would be depleted
Term
What is the main concept behind Darwin's theory of Natural Selection?
Definition
animals with the best attributes will be most fit and will survive to pass on traits but the rest will parish
Term
monophyletic groups
Definition
group of an ancestor and all of its descendants
Term
character states
Definition
various forms of individual attributes
Term
primative states
Definition
little utility in helping determine cladistic relationships
Term
derived states
Definition
used to delineate relationships
Term
transformation series
Definition
pattern of evolutionary change in character states through time within a clade
Term
outgroup analysis
Definition
outgroup taxa has primitive condition from when traits of interest group evolved
Term
What are the 4 biases with fossils?
Definition
1. morphological not molecular based
2. only include skeletal elements (teeth)
3.most from fluvial or arrid environments
4. large animals are more commonly fossilized
Term
vestigiality
Definition
organs no longer being used for original function
Term
atavism
Definition
throw back structures present in ancestors but rare in individuals today
Term
stasis
Definition
lack of change within group of organisms
Term
heterocrony
Definition
evolutionary change to developmental timing or rates
Term
anatomical position of humans
Definition
standing upright, palms forward
Term
anatomical position for non-bipeds
Definition
belly down with limbs or fins in resting position
Term
lateral
Definition
away from midline
Term
medial
Definition
toward midline
Term
proximal
Definition
closer to midline (appendages only)
Term
distal
Definition
further from midline (appendages only)
Term
dorsal
Definition
up
Term
ventral
Definition
down
Term
cranial (anterior)
Definition
front
Term
caudal (posterior)
Definition
back
Term
superior
Definition
top (bipeds only)
Term
inferior
Definition
bottom (bipeds only)
Term
flexion
Definition
bending two parts toward each other about a joint
Term
extension
Definition
increasing the gap between two parts by bending
Term
adduction
Definition
bringing structure towards midline
Term
abduction
Definition
moving structure away from midline
Term
lateral rotation
Definition
rotation away from midline
Term
medial rotation
Definition
rotation towards midline
Term
protraction
Definition
moving structure forward
Term
retraction
Definition
moving structure backwards from where it came
Term
What are the four key vertebrate features that evolved? how many years ago?
Definition
544 million years

1. vertebral column
2. 2 or more semicircular canals
3. radial fin muscles
4.
Term
What is an endostyle? What group did it come from?
Definition
secretes mucous to trap particles and bind iodine

from Chordata
Term
What are pharyngeal slits? What group did they come from?
Definition
filter water for food, contain cilia

from Pharyngotremata
Term
What is a notochord? Which group did it come from?
Definition
hydroskeletal stiffening rod to allow muscle contraction rather than buckling

from Chordata
Term
What is a post-anal tail? What group does it come from?
Definition
used for propulsion

from Chordata
Term
what are myomeres? what group did it come from?
Definition
muscle bundles for controlled sectional movements

from Somitichordata
Term
what is a dorsal/ventral aorta? what group did it come from?
Definition
allows non-tidal blood flow

from Somitichordata
Term
neural crest cells
Definition
spead to many parts of the body, form and regulate much of the cranial development
Term
complex sense organs
Definition
develops from sensory placodes
Term
tri-parate brain function
Definition
receives and integrates info from newly evolved sense organs which sense environment ahead

1. forebrain: olfactory info
2. midbrain: visual info
3. hindbrain: hearing and lateral line system
Term
closed circulatory system
Definition
arteries moving blood into capillaries for diffusion and veins returning blood
Term
brain case
Definition
made of cartilage, protects brain and sense organs
Term
craniate GI tract
Definition
food move through a series of chambers with very specific roles-- storage, digestion, and absorption
Term
function of craniate true liver
Definition
store energy as glycogen or lipid
Term
function of muscular heart
Definition
enabling an efficient circulatory system that now included true blood with hemeglobin that binds with oxygen
Term
function of vertebral column
Definition
provide major body support
Term
function of 2 or more semicircular canals
Definition
spatial orientation sensors (2D or 3D)
Term
function of radial fin muscles
Definition
better control medial fin movements
Term
function of neural crest cells
Definition
control head development
Term
function of notochord
Definition
stiffening rod
Term
function of post anal tail
Definition
propulsion
Term
function of pharyngeal slits
Definition
filter food
Term
function of endostyle
Definition
secrete mucous, bind iodine
Term
function of tubular dorsal nerve chord
Definition
neural transmission
Term
function of coelom
Definition
hollow body
Term
function of enterocoelic coelom
Definition
mesoderm outpocket in development
Term
function of myomeres
Definition
controlled sectional locomotion
Term
function of dorsal ventral aorta
Definition
non-tidal blood flow
Term
What is the most basal living lineage of vertebrates?
Definition
myxiniformes
Term
What is the significance of cellular bone in Osteostracans?
Definition
tissues that allow morphological change throughout life, allowing them to increase in size
Term
What is the significance of Gnathostome jaws?
Definition
eat larger prey
Term
What is the significance of Gnathostome 3 semicircular canals?
Definition
3D spatial sensing (roll, pitch, yaw)
Term
Significance of gnathostome pelvic fins
Definition
fins were supported by strong, internal bony skeleton
Term
significance of Osteichthyes lungs?
Definition
respiratory organs, developed in areas where water could hold little oxygen, allowed for air gulping
Term
What are the 3 reasons the transitions onto land was so difficult?
Definition
1. air is 700x less dense than water (no bouyancy)
2. water is in short supply on land = dessication
3. air does not have the thermal stability of water
Term
what is the significance of keratinized skin in amniotes and amniote egg?
Definition
1. abrasion protection
2. prevent dessication
3. less water dependent
Term
which 3 clades evolved powered flight?
Definition
1. pterosaurs
2. bats
3. birds
Term
What are the 7 characteristics that show that birds are dinosaurs?
Definition
1.feet pointing forward (modified ankles)
2.anteorbital fenestrae
3.4th trochanter on femur
4. theropod (meat eating)
5. hollow bones
6. carnivorous teeth
7. curved femora
Term
What were synapsids?
Definition
mammal class that had a lower temporal fenestra and a sail-back
Term
What were therapsids?
Definition
mammal class with semi-upright posture and heterodont dention (incisors, canines, premolars, molars)
Term
What are the 4 mammal synapomorphies?
Definition
1. 3 ear bones in inner ear
2. precise dental occlusion, diphydont teeth
3.hair
4. mammary glands
Term
Which mammals lay eggs?
Definition
monotremata (echnida and platypus)
Term
Which mammals have live birth?
Definition
therians- marsupials and placentals
Term
What are the 3 primary germ layers?
Definition
1. ectoderm
2. mesoderm
3. endoderm
Term
derivatives of ectoderm
Definition
epidermis,nervous system, major sense organs
Term
what are the 3 branches of mesoderm
Definition
1. paraxial
2. intermediate
3. lateral plate
Term
paraxial mesoderms breaks up into....
Definition
1. dermatome- controls dermis
2. myotome- controls muscles
3. sclerotome- controls vertebral column
Term
intermediate mesoderm controls
Definition
nephric/gonadal ridges
Term
lateral plate mesoderm breaks into
Definition
inner splanchic layer
somatic layer
Term
function of inner splanchic layer
Definition
CT and visceral muscles of heart/gut
Term
function of somatic layer
Definition
parietal peritoneum
Term
derivatives of endoderm
Definition
inner lining of lungs, bladder, thyroid, thymus, parathyroid, liver, pancreas, digestive tube, and auditory tube
Term
epithelium function
Definition
covers outer body and inner lining for protection, diffusion, and secretion
Term
connective tissue function
Definition
body, integrity, support, transport, storage, and defense
Term
muscle function
Definition
movement of body, fluid, or gases
Term
nervous tissue function
Definition
conveying and processing signals
Term
goblet cell function
Definition
in epithelium, secrete mucous,

located in upper respiratory tract, anus, and endostyle
Term
cilia function
Definition
beat to move water and mucous

found in respiratory tract and GI tract
Term
steps to endochondral bone formation
Definition
1. mesenchyme lays down cartilage precursor
2. cartilage proliferates, dies, calcifies
3. perichondral sheath becomes periosteum and lays down diaphysis
4.arteries and veins pentetrate along with preosteoblasts and clasts
5. osteoid layed down around calcified cartilage
6. osteoclasts form medullary cavity
7. same process repeated at ends of bones (epiphysis)
Term
endochondral longitudinal growth occurs via
Definition
cartilage proliferation
Term
endochondral expansive growth is...
Definition
membraneous in nature
Term
steps to membrane bone formation
Definition
1. mesenchyme become osteoblast and lay down osteoid among existing collagen which mineralizes
2. as move beyond initial collagen blood vessels congeal and form cortices
Term
membrane bone growth
Definition
usually at edges where new collagen is laid down
Term
What are the constituents of the first cosmoid plates?
Definition
basal lamellar bone layer (acellular), spongy bone layer (housing blood vessels, electroreceptors), then denticles of cosmine and a layer of enamel
Term
osteoderms
Definition
bony scales reduced to just acellular bone
Term
scutes
Definition
horny plates under the skin (alligator back)
Term
gastralia
Definition
rib-like osteoderms in the ventral abdominal wall to stiffen pleuroperitoneal cavity
Term
Why are feathers considered a scale?
Definition
feathers develop from epithelial-mesenchymal interaction between epidermis and dermis
Term
Why is fur not considered a scale?
Definition
hair develops as an inpocketing rather than an oupocketingof epidermis and dermis
Term
antler
Definition
found in male deer

bone outgrowth with a skin covering that provides nourishment to the antler, shed skin, antler dies
Term
Why do rhino's not have true horns?
Definition
just keratinized skin, no bony core
Term
horn
Definition
found in bovids

keratin sheath covering a bony core
Term
agnathan scales
Definition
cosmoid plates
1. lamellar bone
2. spongy bone
3. cosmine layer
4. enamel
Term
actinopterygian scales
Definition
lepidotrichia

fin rays composed of numerous individual scales
Term
sarcopterygian scales
Definition
cosmoid scale

1.lamellar bone
2. spongy bone
3. lots of cosmine
4. thin veneer of enamel
Term
chondrichthyan scale
Definition
placoid scales

1. enamel
2. dentine
3. aacellular bone veneer
Term
teleostomi scale
Definition
ganoin scales

1. overlapping scales
2. made strictly of lamellar bone
3. cycloid and ctenoid
Term
What are the 5 overall functions of bones?
Definition
1. overall shape
2. provide support
3. protect internal organs
4. house blood forming and resp. tissues
5. lever system
Term
chondrocranium function
Definition
protects brain, ear, and nose
Term
splanchocranium function
Definition
forms visceral arches (gill slit supporter)
Term
dermatocranial function
Definition
dermal bone that surrounds most of remaining cranium
Term
anapsid
Definition
no holes post-orbitally (turtles)
Term
synapsids
Definition
single fenestration post-orbitally (mammals)
Term
diapsid
Definition
two holes post-orbitally (crocs, lizards, snakes)
Term
What is a secondary palate? and which group has it?
Definition
crocs have it

allows for breathing with mouth open underwater (made up of premaxilla, maxilla, palatine, pterygoid)
Term
paleostylic jaw
Definition
agnathans

primative condition

some arches are attached to chondrocranium
Term
autostylic jaw
Definition
palatoquadrate is suspended from chondrocranium

gnathostomes
Term
amphistylic jaw
Definition
chondrichthyans, sarcopterygii

hyomandibula contributes to jaw suspension
Term
hyostylic jaw
Definition
later sharks, bony fish

suspension solely from hyomandibula (jaws that thrust out of the mouth)
Term
secondary autostylic jaw
Definition
holoencephalons, dipnoans, tetrapods

hyomandibulae free to do other things
Term
dorsal mandibular--->
Definition
palatoquadrate--->quadrate bone
Term
ventral mandibular--->
Definition
Meckel's Cartilage--> articular bone
Term
dorsal hyoid-->
Definition
hyomandibula--->columella (ear)
Term
The articular bone goes to which mammal ear bone?
Definition
malleus
Term
The collumella goes to which mammal ear bone?
Definition
stapes
Term
The angular bone goes to which mammal ear bone?
Definition
stapes
Term
what are the 3 teeth parts/tissues
Definition
1. enamel(hard outer layer, dead)
2. dentine (bony like core)
3. pulp cavity (blood vessels/ nerves)
Term
thecodont
Definition
socketed teeth
Term
acrodont
Definition
top of jaw
Term
pleurodont
Definition
side of jaw
Term
polyphydont
Definition
replaced throughout life
Term
diphydont
Definition
juvenile and adult tooth set
Term
monophydont
Definition
single set of teeth
Term
brachydont
Definition
low crown, short roots
Term
hypsodont
Definition
high crown, more wear resistant
Term
bunodont
Definition
cusps become rounded
Term
lophodont
Definition
organized into lophs

(horses, rhinos)
Term
selenodont
Definition
cusps independent but elongate (deer, camel)
Term
jaw closing muscle of carnivores
Definition
temporalis
Term
jaw closing muscle of herbivores
Definition
masseter
Term
what is the spinal formula?
Definition
C7, T12, L5, S5
Term
C1 is also know as...
Definition
atlas (no spinous process)
Term
C2 is also know as...
Definition
axis (spinous process and dens)
Term
characteristics of cervical vertebrae
Definition
spinous process pointing back, 2 transverse foramen, concave
Term
characteristic of thoracic vertebrae
Definition
spinous process pointing down, rib attachment sites, no foramen, convex
Term
characteristic of lumbar vertebrae
Definition
short, stubby process, no foramen, vertebral notch, concave
Term
Which bone allowed the neck to be free??
Definition
post temporal bone
Term
pterosaur wings
Definition
elongate 4th digit
evolved new wrist bone
skin formed wing
Term
bat wings
Definition
1st digit free as a hook
membrane for wings
Term
bird wings
Definition
did not elongate digits
lengthened humerous, ulna, radius
alula formed to prevent stalling (digit 1 or 2)
Term
is the clavical a dermal bone?
Definition
yes
Term
is the scapula a dermal bone?
Definition
no
Term
What is a sesamoid bone? Function?
Definition
bone embedded within a tendon

function: aid in forces transfer, protects tendon, increases moment arm
Term
isotonic muscles
Definition
muscle shortens causing movement= WORK PERFORMED
Term
isometric muscles
Definition
muscle cannot shorten, no work is performed
Term
what are antagonists?
Definition
muscles that pull in an opposite direction to retract a muscle (ex. bicep/tricep)
Term
characteristics of slow twitch muscles
Definition
oxygen metabolism for energery
rich blood supply
lots of myoglobin
contract slowly, dont fatigue
good for slow sustained movements
Term
characteristics of fast twitch muscles
Definition
anaerobic glycolysis for energy
poor blood supply
little myoglobin
Term
fusiform/strap muscle characteristics
Definition
large extension due to long fibers
contract faster bc sarcomeres are in series
used for low force rapid movement
Term
pennate muscle characteristics
Definition
short extension
high force
used to start movements
dont bulge much
good in animals that need streamline
Term
circular/sphincteral muscle characteristcs
Definition
constriction/dialation of lumen surround orifices
Term
cross sectional area is a _____ function
Definition
square
Term
increases in mass are a _____ function
Definition
cubed
Term
doubling an animals length height and width= _____ increase in body ability to sustain weight but weight goes up ____
Definition
4x, 8x
Term
inertia
Definition
inherent property of matter that resists any change of motion (increase mass, increase inertia)
Term
force
Definition
change in state of motion of an object

F=ma
Term
shear
Definition
force applied parallel to surface within an object, tends to cause displacement
Term
bending
Definition
tension on convex surface, compression on concave surface
Term
moment (torque)
Definition
turning, twisting, or rotational effect of a force causing angular acceleration
Term
elasticity
Definition
tendency of an object to return to its orignal form when the load is removed
Term
plasticity
Definition
tendency of an object not to return to its orginal shape after a load is removed
Term
stress
Definition
internal reaction forces within a material
force per unit area in a given plane
Term
strain
Definition
overall deformation or change in dimensions
Term
modulus of elasticity
Definition
slope in elastic region of stress/strain curve
measure of stiffness
Term
center of gravity
Definition
balancing point
dead center in symmetrical objects
toward more bulbous end in oblong objects
Term
torque equation for a cylinder
Definition
f*r=I*a

f=friction
r=radius
I=moment of inertia
a= angular acceleration
Term
moment of inertia for a rectangle
Definition
I=B*H^3/12
Term
drag with a sphere
Definition
low frictional drag due to decreased surface area, but huge pressure drag
Term
drag with a long slender body
Definition
high frictional drag but low pressure drag
Term
What are the 2 ways to increase speed?
Definition
increase stride length
increase frequency of steps
Term
kinetic energy equation
Definition
K=1/2* mass of segment* velocity of segment^2
Term
dynamic stability
Definition
balancing forces when needed to not fall over
Term
pace
Definition
legs on one side of the body move in unison, but out of phase with other side
Term
trot
Definition
diagonal feet move in unison and there is a suspended phase
Term
fast gallop
Definition
one hind leg provides thrust, then the other hind leg, forelimb then forelimb solo balance
Term
half bound
Definition
2 hind legs thrust, flight period, forelimbs hit apart then 2nd suspended period
Term
how do vertebrates increase diffusion efficiency? (3 ways)
Definition
1. higher surface areas
2. thinner membrane
3. efficient balance between blood and oxygen flow across membranes
Term
respiration in primative craniates and ostracoderms
Definition
gill pouches
Term
respiration in jawless fishes
Definition
pouched gills

water in mouth, through pharynx, into internal gills, out external gills
Term
respiration in lamprey
Definition
ventral blind respiratory tube
water pumped back and forth over external gills
Term
respiration in sharks
Definition
septal gills with gill rakers
Term
respiration in teleostomi
Definition
aseptal gills with slits opening to opercular cavity
Term
respiration in osteichthyans
Definition
lungs evolved, no alveoli-sac partioning but have shee like partitions with surfactant
Term
swimbladder
Definition
hydrostatic function

off the dorsal part of esophagus
Term
tunica intima
Definition
endothelial cells
most inner layer
Term
tunica media
Definition
smooth muscle
elastin
Term
tunica adventitia
Definition
outer layer
connective tissue
Term
coronary vessels are equivalent to....
Definition
vasa vorum
Term
characteristics of veins
Definition
large and flat
less elastin in tunica media/intima
little musclulature
Term
artery characteristic
Definition
thick walled tunica media
Term
capillary characteristic
Definition
only endothelium
for diffusion
Term
what are the 3 heart layers and their vasculature equivilents?
Definition
1.endocardium-t. intima
2. myocardium- t. media
3. epicardium- t. adventitia
Term
define portal system
Definition
two capillary beds lying between incoming artery and outgoing vein
Term
explain the hepatic portal system
Definition
nutrients from stomach conveyed to liver sinusoids for processing. detoxified blood is released continually
on demand glycogen, vitamins, proteins are released into general circulation
Term
Shark Ventilation
Definition
suction pump and force pump
Term
suction pump
Definition
inspiration

1. open mouth with gills and spiracle closed
2. pharynx and parabranchials expand
3. elastic recoil creates negative pressure driving water up into gills
Term
force pump
Definition
expiration

1. mouth and spiracle close
2. gills open
3. jaw adductor and branchial muscles compress visceral cartilages driving out water
Term
lizard inspiration
Definition
1. intercostal muscles enlarge pleuroperitoneal cavity by abducting ribs
2. pressure decreases in cavity causing lungs to expand and air comes in
3. glottis closes, air is held in till next cycle
Term
lizard expiration
Definition
1.intercostal muscles shrink adducting ribs
2. pressure in cavity increases
3. air is expelled
Term
bird ventilation
Definition
1. inspiration I: air enters primary bronchi and goes into mesobronchus, enters posterior air sac
2. expiration II: air into mediodorsal bronchi and parabronchi
3. inspiration II: draw into anterior air sacs
4. expiration II: expelled
Term
mammal inspiration
Definition
1.air enters nasal cavity and goes through turbinates
2. enters nasopharynx
3. diaphragm contracts increasing pleural cavity size
4. external intercostals pull ribs rostrally
Term
mammal expiration
Definition
1. elastic recoild of lungs, ribs, abdominal viscera
2. internal intercostals and abdominal muscles are active during forced expiration such as a cough
Term
form and function of vertebrate heart
Definition
1. forms as a tube
2. no left or right sides, but is 4 chambered
3. valved to keep flow unidirectional
Term
pathways of primitive vertebrate heart
Definition
low pressure blood into sinus venosus-->atrium-->ventricle-->conus arteriosus-->gill capillary
Term
what happens in primative vertebrate heart in systole?
Definition
conus absorbs recoil
Term
what happens in primative during diastole
Definition
valves keep the blood flowing
Term
what are coronary arteries?
Definition
blood supply to heart muscle
Term
where do coronary arteries branch from? why?
Definition
base of aortic arch because blood is best there
Term
what are adults lacking in therian mammals that fetus' have?
Definition
no shunts between systemic & pulmonary circuits
Term
fetal circulation pathway
Definition
oxygen enters via umbilical vein--> ductus venosus into inferior vena cava-->returns blood from abdomen-->right atrium--> pulmonary circuit--> left atrium--> shunted blood to ductus arteriosus-->aortic arch-->return through umbilical arteries
Term
pathway of mammalian GI tract
Definition
ingestion-->mastication-->pharynx/esophagus-->stomach-->digestion-->intestines-->absorption
Term
Why do herbivores require fermentation chambers and microorganisms?
Definition
craniates cannot produce cellulase which breaks down cellulose, microorganisms are used to produce cellulase
Term
ammonia (NH3)
Definition
very toxic
fresh water fish just dilute and excrete it
Term
urea
Definition
less toxic
can be stored
Term
excretion of saltwater teleosts
Definition
suck in water, excrete salt and NH3 through gills
Term
excretion in sharks
Definition
convert ammonia to urea
Term
excretion in terrestrial amphibians
Definition
convert nitrogen to urea
Term
excretion in amniotes
Definition
excrete uric acid paste
Term
excretion in amniotes
Definition
excrete uric acid paste
Term
excretion in birds
Definition
uric acid paste
Term
human recapitualtion of kidney development
Definition
pronephros, mesanephros, metanephros
Term
pronephros
Definition
renal tubes unite from anterior end of nephric ridge
Term
mesanephros
Definition
middle renal tubes
Term
metanephros
Definition
kidneys migrate cranially, end up behind liver
Term
reflex pathway
Definition
travel of signal up sensory neuron
synapse with interneuron in dorsal horn
stimulate motor neuron
(one side of body)
Term
ascending pathway
Definition
ascend on interneurons
decussate to other side
travels to brain
Term
descending pathway
Definition
occurs when you decide to react to something

stimulate interneuron in white matter
decussates in brain
travels to specific tract in spinal cord
terminate on motor neurons in ventral horn
Term
cranial nerve 0
Definition
chemosensor for pheromones
Term
cranial nerve I
Definition
olfactory-smell sensing
Term
cranial nerve II
Definition
optic- vision
Term
cranial nerve III
Definition
oculomotor- dorsal, medial, ventral rectus, inferior oblique
Term
cranial nerve IV
Definition
trochlear - superior oblique
Term
cranial nerve V
Definition
trigeminal- face, nasal cavity, lacrimal gland, cornea, mouth, eyelid, branchiomeric, lower jaw, temporal region, tongue
Term
cranial nerve VI
Definition
abducens- lateral rectus
Term
cranial nerve VII
Definition
facial- tear, digestive glands, taste buds
Term
cranial nerve VIII
Definition
vestibulocochlear- hearing/balance
Term
cranial nerve IX
Definition
glosspharyngeal- swallowing, sensing back of tongue
Term
cranial nerve X
Definition
vagus- cucullaris, autonomic viscera
Term
dura mater
Definition
attached to skull bone
outer layer
Term
arachnoid mater
Definition
gaps, network where CSF flows
middle layer
Term
pia mater
Definition
adheres to brain
inner layer
Term
CSF
Definition
produced in choriod plexus

flows in arachnoid mater, venous drainage through arachnoid villi major drainage in dural septa of skull
Term
what is encephalization quotient
Definition
brain size equates to number of neurons, more neurons per unit of body size equates to more complex activities
Term
forebrain
Definition
gives rise to optic vessels and infundibulum of pituitary

splites into telencephalon (hemispheres) and diencephalon ( 3rd ventricle & thalamus)
Term
midbrain
Definition
mesencephalon

optic lobes, auditory lobes, locomotion
Term
hindbrain
Definition
splits into metaencephalon (cerebellum and pons) and mylencephalon (medulla oblongata)

function: receive signals
Term
What are Jacobsen's organs
Definition
vomeronasal organs in most tetrapods

used to sense phereomones and taste environment

microvilli with accessory olfactory bulb
Term
How do lateral lines physically sens changes?
Definition
small clusters of hair cells capped with jelly cupula. water movements move cupula, hairs bend one way increasing rate and the other decreases rate to allow for directional sensing
Term
What are the parts of the human ear?
Definition
1. auricle or pinnae
2. tympanic membrane
3. ossicles
4. tensor tympani muscle
5. cochlea
6. organ of corti
Term
fuction of auricle or pinnae
Definition
funnel sound down external auditory meatus
Term
function of tympanic membrane
Definition
ear drum
Term
function of ossicles
Definition
malleus, incus, stapes

amplifies sound 22x
Term
function of tensor tympani and stapedius
Definition
dampen sound to protect ear
Term
function of cochlea
Definition
lagena and perilymphatic duct
Term
organ of corti function
Definition
hair cells to detect pitch
Term
how does the tapetum lucidum allow for night vision?
Definition
compose of collagen, plates of guanine or purine crystals that are behind retina. they reflect light back to retin to illicit a stimulus
Term
pupil
Definition
formed by vascular tunic and retina
Term
what controls the iris?
Definition
smooth muscle
Term
ciliary body
Definition
smooth muscles that attach to the lens and regulate its shape
Term
aqueous humor function
Definition
nourishes and maintains proper shape of anterior eye
Term
retina
Definition
contains photoreceptive rods and cones
Term
fovea
Definition
spot on back of eye that has a concentration of rods

where vision is best
Term
how does they eye accomodate to see close in?
Definition
focus point is deep

cilliary muscles contract anteriorally and toward eye center

suspensory ligaments slack so lens rounds which is better to bend light and bring focal point anteriorally until it is focused on the retina
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