• cheap
• non invasive
• get important info. about urinary tract 
• useful indicator of renal function
• errors may occur beacuase it is easy

1. Gross examination
2. USG
3. Biochemical analysis
4. Sediment examination 

• sample contamination at collection
• Incorrect storage of urine

• Improper procedure
• Inability to recognize structures 

1. evaluation of the urinary tract
2. screening process
3. geriatric screening
4. pre-anaesthetic screening 

1. voided sample
2. manual expression
3. catheterized sample
4. cystocentiesis 

• clean and not sterile
• no trauma
• increased amount of bacteria and cells
• caught medstream because the urine will be less contaminated
• don't use this method for bacterial cultures 

• must be careful of the bladder
• increased amount of bacteria and cells
• clean and not sterile
• caught midstream
• only used when patient is asleep because they have no muscle tone
• don't do if patient is blocked
• don't use for bacterial cultures 

• use a sterile syringe
• increased amount of RBC's
• caught midstream
• may or may not have bacterial culture
• this method isn't usually used
• female patients must be sedated 

• increased amount of RBC's
• no bacteria because the bladder is steriale
• urine culture
• sterile technique
• take sample directly from bladder 

• yes
• microscopic findings are influenced by bacteria, epithelial cells and other introduced methods from collection method

1. proper collection/storage
2. proper identification
3. proper procedure
4. no expired reagents
5. tightly sealed containers
6. controls available (chem sticks: in water they are negative and there are bacteria on the sticks)
7. standard volume of 3mL 

• time urine was collected
• method of collection (effects what is seen)
• not any medications (effects chemical tests)
• time urinalysis was performed (must be within 30min to 1 hr) 

• animal name (both first and last)
• animal number
• owner name
• collection method
• collection time 

clean, dry, opaque and properly labelled

• it is a volatile environment and changes as soon as it exits the body
• the best results of urinalysis is asap 

first morning sample is ideal

• if sample not analyzed in 30 mins and a preserve called formalin (saves sedament) is added (but for only 6-12 hrs) 
• before analyzing allow urine to warm up to room temperature otherwise chemical tests and sediment can be altered
• gently invert to distribute any formed elements

• makes the sample useless
• bacteria begins to grow
• increases pH (causes a decreases in cellular components)
• increases turbdity
• decreases glucose and bilirubin
• disintegration of casts, red blood cells, cyrstals
• bacteria eat glucose 

• involves all observations made without a microscope or chemical tests/reagents 

1. volume
2. colour
3. turbidity
4. odor
5. foam (doesn't happen any more) 

• 24 hr collection to assess volume
• things to look for
• micturition
• anuria
• oliguria
• polyuria
• pollakiuria
• polydipsia 

1. fluid intake
2. external losses
3. environmental conditions
4. food (can vs dried)
5. activity level (the more active the patient, the more they drink)
6. species (some urinate more than others)
7. animal size 

• colorless to pale yellow
• dark yellow to orange
• yellow
• yellow green
• red to red brown to brown/black
• blue 

• drugs
• food
• disease
• medication

• clear/pale yellow = normal
• the darker the urine the more concentrated 
• hydrations status

1. hematuria
2. hemoglobinuria
3. myoglobinuria

• centrifuge to determine cause
• check plasma color

• heavy and sink to bottom
• indicate bleeding

• intact RBC in urine = problem
• nemerous RBC's
• clear plasma color

• hemoglobin in urine
• RBC's break down and release hemoglobin in urine
• plasma color is key
• red/pink plasma color

• muscle break down
• always dark brown
• clear plasma color 

• clear = normal fresh urine in cats and dogs
• slightly cloudy
• moderatelly cloudy
• cloudy/opaque/turbid
• milky
• flocculent 

• species dependent
• asses cause by examining sedament under a microscope
• a dog with strubite crystals have turbid urine
• turbid urine is normal for horses, rats, rabbits, etc... becasue calcium carbonate is common in their urine
• the less you can see through the urine, the more turbid it is 

• normal smell
• strong/concentrated
• sweet/fruity (may indicate a diabetes)
• caused by ketones (when body can't use glucose and breaks down fat cells)
• foul/ammonia
• caused by urease
• dark yellow = very strong
• green = extreally storng and usually indicates a UTI 

• indicates presence of proteins in urine = not good
• presistent foam may indicates a proteinuria 
• types
• white
• green = bilirubin
• the longer it lasts, the more protein present

1. perform macroscopic examination (color, turbidity, odour)
2. perform chemical reagent tests
3. centrifuge the sample
4. determine specific gravity using supernotant
5. evaluate sediment
6. before refridgerating uring performe macro examination and chemical tests. 

• measures concentrating and diluting ability of kidneys
• measures the amount of solutes in urine and depends on the number and type of solute. 

what can cause overhydration?

1. eating/drinking habits
2. temperature of environment (i.e. if hot, fluids are lost and more water is drunk)
3. collection time (morn. sample = more concentrated because there is little to no fluids being taken in) 

• kidneys absorb what they can handle and flush out the excess
• eat too much sugar, kidneys will flush out excess in urine
• kidneys have a renal threshhold
•  

• to determine wether the kidneys are functioning properly
• determine hydration status
• differentiate between diseases such as diabetes insipidus & diabetes mellitus

• not only based on USG
• inability of kidney to conserve water
• Dilute USG
• lower than expected USG

• not only based on USG
• high USG
• lots of glucose in sample 

1. refractometer
2. urinometer 

• Be consistent
• always note turbidity, temperature and refractometer type
• if fairly turbulent then cnetrifuge first 

• excessive drinking
• excessive urine output
• dilutes USG
• the more water, the more solute and therefore the higher the USG 

• will see signs (driking more and peeing more)
• only 1/3 of nephron left 

• dehydration
• fluid loss
• increased excretion of urine solutes
• shock
• diabetes mellitus
• acute renal disease
• certain drugs 

• polydipsia
• fluids
• chronic renal failure
• diabetes insipidus
• any diseases which kidneys cannot reabsorb water 

• disease process occuring
• low USG
• USG = 1.008 or less 

• high USG
• USG for a dog = greater than 1.030 
• USG for a cat = greater than 1.035

• give or take water, don't effect USG range
• fixed USG
• kidneys not concentrating or diluting
• USG range = 1.008-1.012