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chp 12
chp 12
154
Anatomy
Undergraduate 1
11/13/2010

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Term
Cephalization
Definition
Elaboration of the anterior portion of the CNS
Increase in number of neurons in the head
Highest level is reached in the human brain
Term
During the first 26 days of development:
Definition
Ectoderm thickens forming the neural plate
The neural plate invaginates, forming the neural groove
The neural groove fuses dorsally and forms the neural tube
Term
Prosencephalon – Mesencephalon –Rhombencephalon –
Definition
The anterior end of the neural tube expands and constricts to form the three primary brain vesicles
Term
Telencephalon and diencephalon Mesencephalon
metencephalon and myelencephalon
Definition
In week 5 of embryonic development, secondary brain vesicles form
Term
Prosencephalon
Definition
Primary Brain Vesicles
the forbrain
Term
Mesencephalon
Definition
the mid brain
Term
rhombencephalon
Definition
the hindbrain
Term
arise from the forebrain
Definition
Telencephalon (farthest end of brain) and diencephalon (broken in 2 parts)
Term
Mesencephalon
Definition
in middle) remains undivided
Term
Metencephalon and myelencephalon
Definition
(covered in myelin sheath) arise from the hindbrain
Term
Telencephalon
Definition
Fates of the secondary brain vesicles:
–(becomes cerebral hemisphere/ becomes bigger and bigger until it becomes the brain) cerebrum: cortex, white matter, and basal nuclei
Term
Diencephalon
Definition
Fates of the secondary brain vesicles:
becomes thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus
Term
Mesencephalon
Definition
Fates of the secondary brain vesicles:
–(becomes midbrain) brain stem: midbrain
Term
Metencephalon
Definition
Fates of the secondary brain vesicles:
becomes brain stem: pons and cerebellum
Term
Myelencephalon
Definition
Fates of the secondary brain vesicles:
becomes brain stem: medulla oblongata
Term

Adult structures derived from the neural canal

 

 

[image]

Definition

Telencephalon – lateral ventricles

Diencephalon – third ventricle

Mesencephalon – cerebral aqueduct

Metencephalon and myelencephalon – fourth ventricle

Term
Brain
Definition
(white matter in the middle/ gray matter to the outside)
Term
Brain
Definition
Similar to spinal cord but with additional areas of gray matter
Cerebellum has gray matter in nuclei
Cerebrum has nuclei and additional gray matter in the cortex
Term
Ventricles of the Brain
Definition
Arise from expansion of the lumen of the neural tube
Term
Ventricles of the Brain
Definition
The paired C-shaped lateral ventricles
The third ventricle found in the diencephalon
The fourth ventricle found in the hindbrain dorsal to the pons
Term
Cerebral Hemispheres
Definition
Form the superior part of the brain and make up 83% of its mass
Contain ridges (gyri) and shallow grooves (sulci)
Contain deep grooves called fissures
Are separated by the longitudinal fissure
Have three basic regions: cortex, white matter, and basal nuclei
Term
Deep sulci divide the hemispheres into five lobes:
Definition
Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, and insula (under the temopal lobe)
Term
Central sulcus
Definition
– separates the frontal and parietal lobes
Term
Lateral sulcus
Definition
– separates the parietal and temporal lobes
Term
The precentral and postcentral gyri
Definition
border the central sulcus
Term
The cortex
Definition
– superficial gray matter; accounts for 40% of the mass of the brain
Term
Cerebral Cortex
Definition
Each hemisphere acts contralaterally (controls the opposite side of the body/ left side opperates on right and right opporates on left)
Term
cerebral cortex
Definition
Hemispheres are not equal in function
No functional area acts alone; conscious behavior involves the entire
Term
The three types of functional areas of the cerebral cortex
Definition
motor, sensory and association areas
Term
Motor areas –
Definition
areas of the cerebral cortex that control voluntary movement
Term
sensary areas
Definition
areas of the cerebral cortex where conscious awareness of sensations occur
Term
association areas
Definition
integrate diverse information
Term
Primary (somatic) motor cortex
Definition
Cerebral Cortex: Motor Areas

(if something happens to it the association area in the front has the ability to take over/ why people who have a stroke can relearn stuff)
Term
Premotor cortex-
Definition
associational area. Where we smooth out movements so they’re not jerky.
Term
Broca’s area-
Definition
Located anterior to the inferior region of the premotor area
Present in one hemisphere (usually the left)
A motor speech area that directs muscles of the tongue
Is active as one prepares to speak
Term
Frontal Eye Field
Definition
Located anterior to the premotor cortex and superior to Broca’s area
Controls voluntary eye movement
Term
Weirneikes
Definition
understanding the spoken word
Term
Primary Motor Cortex
Definition
Located in the precentral gyrus
Pyramidal cells whose axons make up the corticospinal tracts
Allows conscious control of precise, skilled, voluntary movements
Term
motor homunculus
Definition
upside-down and contralateral
Term
Premotor Cortex
Definition
Located anterior to the precentral gyrus
Controls learned, repetitious, or patterned motor skills
Coordinates simultaneous or sequential actions
Involved in the planning of movements
Term
Primary Somatosensory Cortex
Definition
Located in the postcentral gyrus, this area:
Receives information from the skin and skeletal muscles
Exhibits spatial discrimination (able to tell which body region is being stimulated)
Term
Primary Somatosensory Cortex
Definition
Located in the postcentral gyrus, this area:
Receives information from the skin and skeletal muscles
Exhibits spatial discrimination (able to tell which body region is being stimulated)
Term
Somatosensory Association Cortex
Definition
Located posterior to the primary somatosensory cortex
Integrates sensory information
Forms comprehensive understanding of the stimulus
Determines size, texture, and relationship of parts
Term
Primary visual (striate) cortex
Definition
Seen on the extreme posterior tip of the occipital lobe
Most of it is buried in the calcarine sulcus
Receives visual information from the retinas
Term
Visual association area
Definition
Surrounds the primary visual cortex
Interprets visual stimuli (e.g., color, form, and movement)
Term
Primary auditory cortex
Definition
Located at the superior margin of the temporal lobe
Receives information related to pitch, rhythm, and loudness
Term
Auditory association area
Definition
Located posterior to the primary auditory cortex
Stores memories of sounds and permits perception of sounds
Wernicke’s area: understanding speech
Term
Prefrontal Cortex
Definition
Located in the anterior portion of the frontal lobe
Involved with intellect, cognition, recall, and personality
Necessary for judgment, reasoning, persistence, and conscience
Closely linked to the limbic system (emotional part of the brain)
Term
Wernicke’s area
Definition
sounding out unfamiliar words
Term
Lateral prefrontal cortex
Definition
– language comprehension and word analysis
Term
Lateral and ventral temporal lobe
Definition
coordinate auditory and visual aspects of language
Term
Language Areas
Definition
Located in a large area surrounding the left (or language-dominant) lateral sulcus
Major parts and functions:
Wernicke’s area –sounding out unfamiliar words
Broca’s area – speech preparation and production
Lateral prefrontal cortex – language comprehension and word analysis
Lateral and ventral temporal lobe – coordinate auditory and visual aspects of language
Term
General (Common) Interpretation Area
Definition
Ill-defined region including parts of the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes
Found in one hemisphere, usually the left
Integrates incoming signals into a single thought
Involved in processing spatial relationships
Term
Visceral Association Area
Definition
Located in the cortex of the insula
Involved in conscious perception of visceral sensations
Term
Association fibers
Definition
Cerebral White Matter
connect different parts of the same hemisphere
Term
Projection fibers –
Definition
Cerebral White Matter
enter the hemispheres from lower brain or cord centers
Term
The corpus striatum is composed of three parts
Definition
Caudate nucleus
Lentiform nucleus –
fibers of internal capsule running between n thrugh caudate and lentiform nuclei
Term
Lentiform nucleus –
Definition
composed of the putamen and the globus pallidus
Term
Diencephalon
Definition
Central core of the forebrain
Consists of three paired structures – thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus
Encloses the third ventricle
Term
Thalamus
Definition
Paired, egg-shaped masses that form the superolateral walls of the third ventricle
Connected at the midline by the intermediate mass
Contains four groups of nuclei – anterior, ventral, dorsal, and posterior
Nuclei project and receive fibers from the cerebral cortex
Term
Thalamic Function
Definition
Sensual afferent impulses converge and synapse here
Impulses of similar function are sorted out, edited, and relayed as a group
All inputs ascending to the cerebral cortex pass through
Mediates sensation, motor activities, cortical arousal, learning, and memory
Term
Hypothalamus
Definition
Located below the thalamus, it caps the brainstem and forms the inferolateral walls of the third ventricle
Term
mammillary body
Definition
Small, paired nuclei bulging anteriorly from the hypothalamus
Relay station for olfactory pathways
Term
Infundibulum
Definition
stalk of the hypothalamus; connects to the pituitary gland
Main visceral control center of the body
Term
Hypothalamic Function
Definition
Regulates blood pressure, rate and force of heartbeat, digestive tract motility, rate and depth of breathing, and many other visceral activities
Perception of pleasure, fear, and rage
Maintains normal body temperature
Regulates feelings of hunger and satiety
Regulates sleep and the sleep cycle
Term
Endocrine Functions of the Hypothalamus
Definition
Releasing hormones control secretion of hormones by the anterior pituitary
The supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei produce ADH and oxytocin
Term
Epithalamus
Definition
Most dorsal portion of the diencephalon; forms roof of the third ventricle
Term
Pineal gland
Definition
part of the epithalamus that – extends from the posterior border and secretes melatonin
Term
Choroid plexus –
Definition
a structure that secretes cerebral spinal fluid (CSF)
Term
Brain Stem
Definition
Consists of three regions – midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata
Similar to spinal cord but contains embedded nuclei
Controls automatic behaviors necessary for survival
Provides the pathway for tracts between higher and lower brain centers
Associated with 10 of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves
Term
Midbrain Nuclei
Definition
Nuclei that control cranial nerves III (oculomotor) and IV (trochlear)
Corpora quadrigemina – four domelike protrusions of the dorsal midbrain
Superior colliculi – visual reflex centers
Inferior colliculi – auditory relay centers
Term
Midbrain structures include:
Definition
Cerebral peduncles – two bulging structures that contain descending pyramidal motor tracts
Cerebral aqueduct – hollow tube that connects the third and fourth ventricles
Various nuclei
Term
Corpora quadrigemina
Definition
– four domelike protrusions of the dorsal midbrain
Superior colliculi – visual reflex centers
Inferior colliculi – auditory relay centers
Term
Substantia nigra
Definition
Midbrain Nuclei
– functionally linked to basal nuclei (review Parkinson’s Disease)
Term
red nuclei
Definition
Midbrain Nuclei
– largest nucleus of the reticular formation; are relay nuclei for some descending motor pathways
Term
Fibers of the pons:
Definition
Forms part of the anterior wall of the fourth ventricle
Connect higher brain centers and the spinal cord
Relay impulses between the motor cortex and the cerebellum (cerebellar peduncles)
Term
Pons
Definition
Origin of cranial nerves V (trigeminal), VI (abducens), and VII (facial)
Contains nuclei of the reticular formation
Regulates normal breathing rhythm
Term
Medulla Oblongata
Definition
Most inferior part of the brain stem
Along with the pons, forms the ventral wall of the fourth ventricle
Contains a choroid plexus of the fourth ventricle
contains pyramids
Term
Pyramids
Definition
two longitudinal ridges formed by corticospinal tracts
Term
motor
Definition

(What kind of signals do the pyramids carry?)

 

Term
Decussation of the pyramids –
Definition
crossover points of the corticospinal tracts
Term
(What is the consequence of decussation?)
Definition
Term
Inferior olivary nuclei
Definition
medulla nuclei
– gray matter that relays sensory information
Term
Inferior olivary nuclei
Definition
medulla nuclei
– gray matter that relays sensory information
Term
Medulla Nuclei
Definition
Cranial nerves X, XI, and XII are associated with the medulla
Vestibular nuclear complex – synapses that mediate and maintain equilibrium
Ascending sensory tract nuclei, including nucleus cuneatus and nucleus gracilis
Term
Cardiovascular control center –
Definition
adjusts force and rate of heart contraction
Term
Respiratory
Definition
centers – control rate and depth of breathing
Term
Additional centers –
Definition
regulate vomiting, hiccupping, swallowing, coughing, and sneezing
Term
(Which type of cells are conspicuously absent from the vomit center? Why?)
Definition
Astrocytes. They keep toxins out of the brain. The toxins have to enter this center in order for u to throw up
Term
The Cerebellum
Definition
Makes up 11% of the brain’s mass
Provides precise timing and appropriate patterns of skeletal muscle contraction
activity occurs subconsciously
Term
How do the cerebellar homunculi relate to the cerebral homunculi?
Definition
Term
cerebellum
Definition
Folia – transversely oriented gyri
Each hemisphere has three lobes – anterior, posterior, and flocculonodular
Neural arrangement – gray matter cortex, internal white matter, scattered nuclei, Purkinje cells
Term
Cerebellar Peduncles
Definition
Three paired fiber tracts that connect the cerebellum to the brain stem
All fibers in the cerebellum are ipsilateral
Term
Superior peduncles
Definition
connect the cerebellum to the midbrain
Term
Middle peduncles
Definition
connect the pons to the cerebellum
Term
Inferior peduncles
Definition
connect the medulla to the cerebellum
Term
Cerebellar Processing
Definition
Cerebellum receives impulses of the intent to initiate voluntary muscle contraction
Proprioceptors and visual signals “inform” the cerebellum of the body’s condition
Cerebellar cortex calculates the best way to perform a movement
A “blueprint” of coordinated movement is sent to the cerebral motor cortex
Term
Cerebellar Cognitive Function
Definition
Plays a role in language and problem solving
Recognizes and predicts sequences of events
Term
Functional Brain System
Definition
Limbic system in charge of emotions
Reticular formation
Term

Limbic System

Structures located on the medial aspects of cerebral hemispheres and diencephalon Includes:

Definition

 the rhinencephalon (“nose brain”)

amygdala (“almond”)

hippocampus (“sea horse”)

fornix (“arch”)

hypothalamus (“ hmm” ?)

cingulate gyrus (“girdle”)

anterior nucleus of the thalamus

Term
amydala
Definition
Limbic System
– deals with anger, danger, and fear responses (deals w/ the sympathetic nerveous system)
Term
Cingulate gyrus
Definition
Limbic System
plays a role in expressing emotions via gestures, and resolves mental conflict.
Term
Limbic System
Definition
Puts emotional responses to odors – e.g., skunks smell bad
Involved in psychosomatic illness
Term
The limbic system interacts with the prefrontal lobes, therefore:
Definition
One can react emotionally to conscious understandings
One is consciously aware of emotion in one’s life
Term
Hippocampal structures
Definition
Limbic System: Emotion and Cognition
convert new information into long-term memories
Term
Raphe nuclei
Medial (large cell) group
Lateral (small cell) group
Definition
reticular formation
Composed of three broad columns along the length of the brain stem
Term
Reticular Formation
Definition
Has far-flung axonal connections with hypothalamus, thalamus, cerebellum, and spinal cord
Term
Consciousness
Definition
Encompasses perception of sensation, voluntary initiation and control of movement, and capabilities associated with higher mental processing
Involves simultaneous activity of large areas of the cerebral cortex
Is superimposed on other types of neural activity
Term
Clinical consciousness
Definition
consciousness is defined on a continuum that grades levels of behavior – alertness, drowsiness, stupor, coma
Term
There are two major types of sleep:
Definition
Non-rapid eye movement (NREM)
Rapid eye movement (REM)
Term
Characteristics of REM sleep
Definition
EEG pattern reverts through the NREM stages to the stage 1 pattern
Vital signs increase
Skeletal muscles (except ocular muscles) are inhibited
Most dreaming takes place
Term
circadian rhythm
Definition
Alternating cycles of sleep and wakefulness reflect a natural
Term
sleep pattern
Definition
Although RAS activity declines in sleep, sleep is more than turning off RAS
The brain is actively guided into sleep
The suprachiasmatic and preoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus regulate the sleep cycle
A typical ____ alternates between REM and NREM sleep
Term
REM
Definition
Those deprived of ____ sleep become moody and depressed
______ sleep may be a reverse learning process where superfluous information is purged from the brain
Term
Short-term memory
Definition
(working memory/ reverberating) – a fleeting memory of the events that continually happen lasts seconds to hours and is limited to 7 or 8 pieces of information
Term
Long-term memory
Definition
parellel processing) has limitless capacity
Term
Automatic memory
Definition
subconscious information stored in LTM (ex. What color a speaker’s tie is)
Term
Fact memory involves the following brain areas:
Definition
Hippocampus and the amygdala, both limbic system structures
Specific areas of the thalamus and hypothalamus of the diencephalon
Ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the basal forebrain
Term
Skill memory involves:
Definition
Corpus striatum – mediates the automatic connections between a stimulus and a motor response
Portion of the brain receiving the stimulus
Premotor and motor cortex
Term
Mechanisms of Memory
Definition
Neuronal RNA content is altered
Dendritic spines change shape
Extracellular proteins are deposited at synapses involved in LTM
Term
Mechanisms of Memory
Definition
Number and size of presynaptic terminals may increase
More neurotransmitter is released by presynaptic neurons
New hippocampal neurons appear
Term
BDNF
Definition
is involved with Na+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ influence at synapses
Term
Blood-Brain Barrier
Definition
Protective mechanism that helps maintain a stable environment for the brain
Term
Bloodborne substances are separated from neurons by:
Definition
Continuous endothelium of capillary walls
Relatively thick basal lamina
Bulbous feet of astrocytes
Term
Blood-Brain Barrier: Functions
Definition
Selective barrier that allows nutrients to pass freely
Is ineffective against substances that can diffuse through plasma membranes
Term
stress
Definition
increases the ability of chemicals to pass through the blood-brain barrier
Term
Spinal Cord
Definition
Protected by bone, meninges, and CSF
Term
Posterior (dorsal) horns
Definition
– interneurons
Term
Anterior (ventral) horns
Definition
interneurons and somatic motor neurons
Term
Lateral horns
Definition
– contain sympathetic nerve fibers
Term
Four zones are evident within the gray matter –
Definition
somatic sensory (SS), visceral sensory (VS sensory information from organs), visceral motor (VM), and somatic motor (SM)
Term
White Matter: Pathway Generalizations
Definition
Pathways decussate
Most consist of two or three neurons
Most exhibit somatotopy (precise spatial relationships)
Pathways are paired (one on each side of the spinal cord or brain)
Term
White Matter: Pathway Generalizations
Definition
Pathways decussate
Most consist of two or three neurons
Most exhibit somatotopy (precise spatial relationships)
Pathways are paired (one on each side of the spinal cord or brain)
Term
The central processes of first
Definition
-order neurons branch diffusely as they enter the spinal cord and medulla
Term
Main Ascending Pathways
Definition
Some branches take part in spinal cord reflexes
Others synapse with second-order neurons in the cord and medullary nuclei
Term
Main Ascending Pathways
Definition
Fibers from touch and pressure receptors form collateral synapses with interneurons in the dorsal horns
Term
Three Ascending Pathways
Definition
send impulses to the sensory cortex
These pathways are responsible for discriminative touch and conscious proprioception
Term
spinothalamic tract
Definition
Nonspecific pathway for pain, temperature, and crude touch within the lateral spinothalamic tract
Term
Specific and Posterior Spinocerebellar Tracts
Definition
Specific ascending pathways within the fasciculus gracilis and fasciculus cuneatus tracts, and their continuation in the medial lemniscal tracts
The posterior spinocerebellar tract
Term
Descending (Motor) Pathways
Definition
Descending tracts deliver efferent impulses from the brain to the spinal cord, and are divided into two groups
Direct pathways equivalent to the pyramidal tracts
Indirect pathways, essentially all others
Term
upper and lower)
Definition
Motor pathways involve two neurons
Term
Direct pathways
Definition
originate with the pyramidal neurons in the precentral gyri
Term
The Direct (Pyramidal) System
Definition
Impulses are sent through the corticospinal tracts and synapse in the anterior horn
Term
The Direct (Pyramidal) System
Definition
Stimulation of anterior horn neurons activates skeletal muscles
Parts of the direct pathway, called corticobulbar tracts, innervate cranial nerve nuclei
regulates fast and fine (skilled) movements
Term
Indirect (Extrapyramidal) System
Definition
Includes the brain stem, motor nuclei, and all motor pathways not part of the pyramidal system
This system includes the rubrospinal, vestibulospinal, reticulospinal, and tectospinal tracts
Term
Indirect (Extrapyramidal) System
Definition
These motor pathways are complex and multisynaptic, and regulate:
Axial muscles that maintain balance and posture
Muscles controlling coarse movements of the proximal portions of limbs
Head, neck, and eye movement
Term
Reticulospinal tracts
Definition
maintain balance
Term
Rubrospinal tracts
Definition
– control flexor muscles
Term
Superior colliculi and tectospinal tracts
Definition
mediate head movements
Term
Developmental Aspects of the CNS
Definition
CNS is established during the first month of development
Gender-specific areas appear in response to testosterone (or lack thereof)
Term
Developmental Aspects of the CNS
Definition
Maternal exposure to radiation, drugs (e.g., alcohol and opiates), or infection can harm the fetus’ developing CNS
Smoking decreases oxygen in the blood, which can lead to neuron death and fetal brain damage
Term
develop
Definition
The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the CNS to
Term
Developmental Aspects of the CNS
Definition
Visual cortex develops slowly over the first 11 weeks
Growth and maturation of the nervous system occurs throughout childhood and reflects progressive myelination
Term
Age
Definition
brings some cognitive declines, but these are not significant in healthy individuals until they reach their 80s
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