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Chapters 5-8
chapters 5-8
246
Anatomy
Undergraduate 1
02/04/2011

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Term
The Skin
Definition
Epithelial and connective tissues working together for specific purposes

The largest organ of the body

1.5-4mm thick
Term
What are the 8 functions of skin Physiology
Definition
Regulation of Body temperature
Protection
Sensation
Communication
Excretion
Immunity
Dermis is a significant blood reservoir
Synthesis of Vitamin D
Term
What are the two principal portions of the architecture of the skin
Definition
Epidermis
Dermis
Term
Hypodermis
Definition
"beneath the dermis"
the subcutaneous layer next to: adipose layer, muscle, or bone
Term
Epidermis
Definition
Stratified Squamous Epithelium and has four different cell types
Term
What are the 4 different cell types of the epidermis?
Definition
Keratinocytes

Melanocytes

Langerhans

Merkel
Term
Kerationcytes
Definition
Make up 90% of the Epidermis

filled with keratin (protein)

Have a waterproof barrier
Term
Melanocytes
Definition
Make up 8% of the Epidermis

Produce Melanin (pigment)

Pass melanin to keratinocytes
Term
Langerhans Cells
Definition
Phagocytes (from immune system)

easily damaged by UV light
Term
Merkel Cells
Definition
In deepest layer of hairless skin

Sensory transduction-- touch
Term
What are the 5 Epidermis Cell Layers?
Definition
Stratum basale

Stratum Spinosum

Stratum Granulosum

Stratum Lucidum

Stratum Corneum
Term
Stratum basale
Definition
A single layer of cuboidal/columnar cells

Stem cells, melanocytes, Merkel cells

Stem cells Keratinocytes, mitosis pushes the other layers to the top
Term
Stratum Spinosum
Definition
8 to 10 layers of closely packed cells

Cell junctions-- spot desmosomes

Langerhan's cells
Term
Stratum Granulosum
Definition
3-5 layers of flattened, with keratohyaline granules

beginning breakdown of nucleus, cell death initiated
Term
Strati, :icodi,
Definition
Only in thick skin (palms, skin)

3-5 layers of clear, flat dead cells with keratin
Term
Stratum Corneum
Definition
20-30 layers of flattened, dead, keratin- filled cells

Continuously shed and replaced
Term
What takes 2-4 weeks for each cell to form and to move from the stratum basale to the surface?
Definition
Epidermal Cell Layers
Term
What are the four general parts to the dermis?
Definition
Variable thickness

Few cells present

Matrix thick with many protein fibers

The location for blood vessels, nerves and sensory receptors, glands, hair follicles
Term
What are the two regions to the Dermis Structure
Definition
Papilliar region

Reticular region
Term
Papillary region
Definition
the outer layer of 20%

has Areolar connective tissue and elastic fibers

Dermal papillae

Some papillae contain Meissner's corpuscles
Term
Dermal Papillae
Definition
mound like projections to increase the surface area for nutrition from capillaries
Term
Reticular region
Definition
makes up 80% of the Dermis structure

Dense irregular connective tissue

Collagen elastic firers in a network surrounding the various cells

Fibers give strength

Tears in the region such as stretch marks
Term
What are the 3 skin pigments?
Definition
Melanin

Carotene

Hemoglobin
Term
Melanin
Definition
yellow to black

made by melanocytes

common in mucous membranes, penic, nipples, areolas, face, extremities

freckles, liver spots,
synthesized from tyrosine

common in african americans
Term
Carotene
Definition
yellow-orange pigment

gives egg yolks, carrots their collor

used in the synthesis of a vision pigment

persons of asian extraction... in the fatty areas of the dermis and in their subcutaneous layers
Term
Hemoglobin
Definition
because the skin is translucent

Caucasian skin tinted ret to pink depending on dermal capillary blood flow
Term
Skin Color
Definition
Blood is bright red when carrying oxygen, dark red/purple when deoxygenated; the skin appears to have a blue or green or purple tinge depending on the individual

the relative color of skin and exposed mucous membranes can give clues to a person's oxygenation status
Term
What are the six skin color clinical terminology
Definition
Erythema

Pallor

Cyanosis

Jaundice

Bronzing

Bruises (contusions)
Term
Erythema
Definition
Skin redness

Exercise, embarrassment, high blood pressure, certain drugs, inflammation, etc.
Term
Pallor
Definition
pale

cold temperatures, stress, or anemia
Term
Cyanosis
Definition
Bluish/ no oxygen

Babies not breathing/ heavy smokers/ emphysema
Term
Jaundice
Definition
yellow/orange

aftre internal hemorrhage

liver problems disturbing the breakdown and removal of RBC's
Term
Bronzing
Definition
Metallic appearance of skin

Addisons disease/ hypofunction of adrenal cortex
Term
Contusions
Definition
Black and blue marks/ bruises
Term
What are the four Skin Pathologies
Definition
Basal cell carcinoma

Squamous cell carcinoma

Melanoma

ABCD Rule
Term
Basal Cell Carcinoma
Definition
From stratum basale

Least Malignant-- 99% full care
Term
Squamous cell carcinoma
Definition
From stratum spinosum

Prognosis is good if removed early
Term
Melanoma
Definition
Melanocyte cancer

Highly Metastatic

Resistant to Chemotherapy
Term
ABCD Rule
Definition
Asymmetry

Border Irregularity

Color: several present

Diameter: greater than 6mm
Term
What are two types or Melanin Pathologies of Skin Pigments
Definition
Albinism

Vitiligo
Term
Albinism
Definition
Inability to produce melanin; cannot breakdown tyrosine, no melanin, inborn error of metabolism; recessive trait
Term
Vitiligo
Definition
Partial/complete loss of melanocytes from skin patches
Term
Skin Grafts
Definition
Sometimes when the is skin severely damaged, it cannot regenerate itself

dependent on the site of origin of the transplanted tissur
Term
What are the four types of skin grafts?
Definition
Auto grafts

isografts

homografts

heterografts
Term
Autografts
Definition
grafts from the same person

donated from a different site

can be tissue cultured first
Term
Isografs
Definition
a type of skin graft used from identical twins
Term
Homograft
Definition
A type of skin graft that is skin from another human
Term
Heterograft
Definition
a skin graft from an animal
Term
what are the five hair functions?
Definition
Protection

Mechanical dry lubicant for limb movements

Secondary sexual characteristic to attract mates

Touch receptors respond to changes in position

Rate of growth and replacement affected by many things: heredity, diet, illness, fever, blood loss, surgery, drugs, chemotherapy
Term
Hair function: protection
Definition
Increase surface area for evaporative heat loss

increased length for sunburn and heatstroke

eyebrows, eyelashes-- insects, foreign particles

nostril hair

ear hair
Term
What are the seven parts of Hair Anatomy?
Definition
Shaft

Root

Follicle

Sheath

Bulb

Sebaceous glands

Arrector Pili
Term
Hair Anatomy: shaft
Definition
medulla-- inner layer

cortex-- middle layer, pigments, air spaces

Cuticle-- outermost layer, hard keratin
Term
Hair Anatomy: root
Definition
Similar to shaft, but in skin
Term
Hair Anatomy: follicle
Definition
surrouds root
Term
Hair Anatomy: sheath
Definition
supports sharf and root
Term
Hair Anatomy: Bulb
Definition
Enlarged layered structure at base where hair is generated
Term
What are the two parts of the bulb in the hair
Definition
papilla

matrix
Term
What are the two parts of the bulb in the hair
Definition
papilla

matrix
Term
Papilla
Definition
Areolar connective tissue, blood vessels supply nutrients
Term
Matrix
Definition
germination layer of papilla (stratum basale) builds hair shaft
Term
Hair Anatomy: Sebaceous Glands
Definition
Release Oil
Term
Hair Anatomy: arrector Pili
Definition
Smooth Muscle
Term
What are the 7 types of hair color
Definition
Brown

Black

Red

Blond

Grey

white
Term
Hair Color: Brown and Black
Definition
melanin deposited into the shaft
Term
Hair Color: Red, Blond
Definition
variants of melanin with iron and sulfur in the molecule
Term
Hair Color: Grey
Definition
Some loss of melanocytes reduces melanin deposition
Term
Hair Color: White
Definition
Air bubbles accumulate in the cortex
Term
testosterone
Definition
Secretion increases at puberty

Male pattern of hair growth and distribution begins
Term
Hirsutism
Definition
Excess testosterone production, tumor or hormonal imbalance

Excess hair production in females or pre pubertal males
Term
What are the three parts Male Pattern Baldness
Definition
genetic predisposition

Finasteride (Propecia)

Minoxidil (Rogaine)
Term
Genetic Predisposition
Definition
Sex linked trait

testosterone inhibits scalp hair growth in these individuals
Term
Finasteride (Propecia)
Definition
anti testosterone agent

Must be taken for remainder of life
Term
Minoxidil (Rogaine)
Definition
Anti-hypertensicve medicine

Widens blood vessels, increases blood flow

Topically (daily) promotes growth in people with reduced hair growth (not much but some): but not in truly bald individuals
Term
Sebaceous (Oil) Glands
Definition
Connected to hair follicles; located in the dermis

Most secrete directly into follicles; some directly onto the skin

Gland shape differs depending on location

Holocrine gland

Secrete sebum (oil)
Term
Secrete sebum (oil)
Definition
Fats, sholesterol, proteins, inorganic salts

Keeps hair from drying

prevents water evaporation from skin

keeps skin soft, supple

inhibits growth of many bacteria
Term
sudoriferous (Sweat) Glands
Definition
sweat

pH between 4 and 6

salty and acidic solution inhibits most bacterial growth

Maintain body temperature, but in insignificant for waste removal
Term
What are the two types of Sudoriferous (Sweat) Glands
Definition
Eccrine Sweat Glands

Apocrine sweat glands
Term
sweat
Definition
a plasma filtrate consisting of water, salts, urea, acid, amino acids, ammonia, sugar, lactic acid, ascorbic acid, and pheromones
Term
Eccrine sweat glands
Definition
Most abundant (millions), especially on the palms and soles and the forehead

Lifetime performance influenced by environmental experience in infacy

Secretory portion located in the dermis
Term
Apocrine Sweat Glands
Definition
Less abundant, confined mostly to axillary and anogenital regions and the areolae of the breast

secretory portion is located in the dermis or the subcutaneous region; secrete into hair follicles

secrete more during emotional stress, sexual arousal

a merocrine process
Term
What are the two types of modified sweat glands
Definition
Ceruminous glands

Mammary glands
Term
Ceruminous glands
Definition
Protect against extoparasites (bugs)

Produce a bitter waxy secretion (cerumen)

Open into the external auditory meatus (ear canal) or into local sebaceous glands
Term
Mammary glands
Definition
Highly specialized for milk production

Hormonally regulated by estrogens, prolactin, and oxytocin
Term
Cystic Fibrosis (CF)
Definition
Patients have an autosomal recessive inborn error of metabolism

altered chloride transport which alters the characteristics of most glandular secretions

Detected in infants with a simple chloride sweat test CF babies have elevated sweat chloride values

Primarily affects the respiratory and digestive systems with thick clogging secretions

Average lifespan approximately 30 years

1/3900 newborns 3/100 adults are carriers
Term
what are the two parts of nails
Definition
tightly packed cells with hard keratin

Nail matrix
Term
Nail Matrix
Definition
under the root of the nail

site of nail growth

Transforms normal skin cells into nail cells which push forward

1mm/week in fingers; slower in toes

the longoer the finger the greater the growth rate
Term
What are the five functions of bones?
Definition
Support
Protection
movement
mineral homeostasis
site of blood cell production
Term
What is the protection function of the bone?
Definition
protect internal organs
Surround the brain; vertebrae surround the spinal cord; pelvic girdle surround the reproductive organs
Term
what are the two types of Macroscopic Bone Structure
Definition
Diaphysis

Epiphysis (epiphyses)
Term
diaphysis
Definition
the shaft of a long bone

contains medullary or marrow cavity
Term
Red (hematopoietic) bone marrow
Definition
Infants have this type of marrow that eventually turns into yellow (fatty bone marrow throughout life
Term
Epiphysis (epiphyses)
Definition
ends of a long bone
epiphyseal plate
nutrient foramen
articular cartilage
Term
epiphyseal plate
Definition
growth plate made of cartilage
Term
nutrient foramen
Definition
site of blood vessel entry into bone
Term
articular cartilage
Definition
hyaline cartilage covering epiphysis
Term
Perisoteum
Definition
two layers of connective tissue around bone

sharpey's fibers anchor perisosteum to the bone

site of ligament, tendon attachment

large supply of nerves and blood vessels
Term
Fibrous layer (outer)
Definition
dense irregular connective tissue
Term
Osteogenic layer (inner)
Definition
Made up of Osteoblasts and osteoclasts
Term
Osteoblasts
Definition
bone forming cells

secret collagen and other organic components for bone synthesis

found on any bone surface
Term
Osteoclasts
Definition
bone remodeling cells

settle on bone surface

function in bone resorption (matrix destruction) for growth, development, maintenance, repair
Term
Endosteum
Definition
Lines the medullary cavity

Contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts
Term
What is mineralized in the matrix
Definition
25% water
25% Protein fibers
50% Hydroxyapatietes (mineral) salts (mainly calcium 2 phosphates)
Term
Osteocytes
Definition
mature bone cells

embedded in matrix in lacunae with canaliculi

Maintain daily activities of bone tissue; nutrient, waste exchange
Term
Matrix
Definition
ground substance and collagen
Term
Crystallization
Definition
calcification and mineralization

hydroxapatite (calcium phosphate salt) and other salts
Term
Hardness vs. flexibility
Definition
collagen fibers
mineralization
crystallization develops around collagen fibers
stronger than egg shells which have no collagen
Term
Why is the matrix not continuous
Definition
many vascular passageways penetrate the mineralized matrix
Term
What determines the type of bone... spongy or compact?
Definition
size and distribution of these vascular channels
Term
What are the two types of bone
Definition
Compact and Spongy
Term
Compact Bone
Definition
Appears very dense
Most of the bone mass in the body
Term
Spongy Bone
Definition
small struts of bone (trabeculae)
may appear randomly organized, but the trabeculae, like girders in a building, are generally oriented in the directions of stresses
Term
Osteon
Definition
central canal with lamellae, lacunae, osteocytes, and canaliculi

blood vessels run through perforating canal s to the central canal
Term
Canaliculi
Definition
house multiple cytoplasmic extensions from the osteocytes
Term
Volkman's canal
Definition
another word for Perforating canals
Term
Haversian Canals
Definition
another word for central canals
Term
Interstitial Lamellae
Definition
Found in older bone

Older osteons are gradually broken down and replaced during the remodeling process
Term
Spongy Bone
Definition
Has no true osteon systems

Osteocytes recieve nutrients by diffusion through canaliculi

Red marrow fills the spaces between the trabeculae

Blood vessels pass through compact bone to spongy bone

Blood vessels pass through yellow marrow cavities; open out to become red marrow cavities
Term
Embrryonic skeleton
Definition
composed of fibrous connective tissue membranes and hyaline cartilage
Term
Ossification/ Osteogenesis
Definition
Begins at week 8 of development

two types
Term
What are the two different types of bone formation
Definition
Fibrous membrane model and Hyaline cartilage model
Term
Fibrous membrane model
Definition
intramembranous ossification "membrane bones"
Term
Hyaline cartilage model
Definition
endochondral ossification

The initial cartilage is transformed to become "endochondral bones"
Term
Intramembranous Ossification
Definition
Results in the formation of cranial bones and the clavicles
--All are flat bones

at the site of bone development
--begins in fibrous connective tissue membranes formed by mesenchymal cells and has Osteoprogenitor cells (osteoblasts)
Term
Osteoprogenitor cells (osteoblasts)
Definition
clusters of embryonic cells

become centers of ossification, secrete matrix until they are surrounded
Term
Intramembranous Ossification 1
Definition
an ossification center appears in the fibrous connective tissue membrane.

Selected centrally located mesenchymal cells cluster and differentiate into osteoblasts, forming an ossification center.
Term
Intermembranous Ossification 2
Definition
Bone matrix (osteoid) is secreted within the fibrous membrane

Osteoblasts begin to secrete osteoid, which is mineralized within a ffew days

Trapped osteoblasts become osteocytes
Term
Intramembranous Ossification 3
Definition
Woven bone and periosteum form

accumulating osteoid is laid down between embroyonic blood vessels, which form a random network. The result is a network (instead of lamellae) of trabeculae.

Vascularized mesenchyme condenses on the external face of the woven bone and becomes the periosteum
Term
Intramembranous Ossification 4
Definition
Bone collar of compact bone forms and red marrow appears.

Trabeculae just deep to the periosteum thicken, forming a woven bone collar that is later replaced with mature lamellar bone.

Spongy bone (diploe), consisting of distinct trabeculae, persists internally and its vascular tissue becomes red marrow
Term
Endochondral Ossification
Definition
Forms all bones below the base of the skull (except clavicle)

Uses hyaline cartilage"bones" as models for bone construction

Requires breakdown of hyaline cartilage prior to ossification
Term
Prepping for ossification
Definition
The perichondrium covering the hylaine cartilage is infiltrated with blood vessels, converting it to a vascularized periosteum

Increased nutritional status allows mesenchymal cells to specialize into osteoblasts, creating the primary ossification center
Term
Endochondral Ossification 1
Definition
bone collar forms around hyaline cartilage model
Term
Endochondral Ossification 2
Definition
Cartilage in the center of the diaphysis calcifies and then develops cavities
Term
Endochondral Ossification 3
Definition
The periosteal bud invades the internal cavities and spongy bone begins to form
Term
Endochondral Ossification 4
Definition
The diaphysis elongates and a medullary cavity forms as ossification continues. Secondary ossification centers appear in the epiphyses in preparation for stage 5
Term
Endochondral Ossification 5
Definition
The epiphyses ossify. When completed hyaline cartilage remains only in the epiphyseal plates and articular cartilages
Term
Endochondral Ossification
Definition
Vascularized connective tissue develops into the periosteum outside and the endosteum inside

Most of this bone will be remodeled repeatedly over time
Term
Postnatal Bone Growth
Definition
Growth in length and width of long bones

accompanied by remodeling in order to maintain the proper shape of the epiphysis and diaphysis

Cells of the epiphyseal plate proximal to the resting cartilage form three functionally different zones: growth, transformation, and osteogenic

Most bone growth stops during adolescence

Continued growth of nose and lower jaw
Term
Postnatal Bone Growth
Definition
Regulated by hGH and the sex hormones

In children, cartilage production continues on the epiphyseal (distal) side

cells are destroyed and replaced to increase the length of bone
Term
Postnatal Long Bone Growth
Definition
growth in length of long bones

cells in the growth zone divide quickly pushing the epiphysis away from the diaphysis

Cells in hypertrophic zone hypertrophy causing lacunae to erode and enlarge

Cartilage matrix calcifies and the chondrocytes die

leaves long spicules of calcified cartilage at the epiphysis diaphysis junctions

the spicules become the osteogenic zone and are invaded by marrow from the medullary cavity

The cartilage is eroded by osteoclasts and osteoblasts secret matrix to form spongy bone

The spicule tips are removed by osteoclasts
Term
Long Bone Growth
Definition
At the end of adolescence, epiphyseal plates divide less often and plates are replaced by bone tissue

Longitudal growth ceases and the epiphysis/diaphysis fuse.
Term
Epiphysis/ diaphysis
Definition
Called epiphyseal plate closure

Females at 18 years

Males at 21 years

clavicle is the last bone to stop growing
Term
Appositonal Bone Growth
Definition
Growth in width

From the inside out

compact bone lining the medullary cavity is destroyed

Osteoblasts from periosteum continue to add more bone to the outer surface
Term
Remodeling
Definition
replacement of old bone by new bone

bone is resorbed and added by appositional growth

Occurs at periosteum and endosteum
Term
remodeling units
Definition
packets of osteoblast and oseoclast cells that coordinate remodeling
Term
Bone Resorption
Definition
Accomplished by osteoclasts

Resorption bays

involves osteoclast secretion of lysosomal enzymes that digest organic matrix and acids that convert calcium salts into soluble forms

dissolved matrix is trascytosed across the osteoclast's cell where it is secreted into the interstitial fluid and then into the blood
Term
Resorption bays
Definition
grooves fromed by osteoclasts as they break down bone matrix
Term
hormonal Mechanism
Definition
Falling blood Calcium levels signal the parathyroid glands to release PTH

PTH signals osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix and release Calcium into the blood

Rising blood calcium levels trigger the thyroid to release calcitonin

Calcitonin stimulates calcium salt deposit in bone
Term
What are the three types of responses to mechanical stress
Definition
Wolff's law
Trabeculae form along lines of stress
Large, bony projections occur where heavy, active muscles attach
Term
Wolff's law
Definition
a bone grows or remodels in response to the forces or demands placed upon it
Term
Observations supporting Wolff's law
Definition
Long bones are thickest midway along the shaft (where bending stress is greatest)

Curved bones are thickest where they are most likely to buckle
Term
Epiphyseal plate
Definition
during infancy and childhood this activity is stimulated by growth hormones
Term
During puberty testosterone and estrogens...
Definition
initially promote adolescent growth spurts

Cause masculinization and feminizatio of specific parts of the skeleton

Later induce epiphyseal plate closure, ending longitudinal bone growth
Term
What are two parts to bone homeostasis in nutrition
Definition
minerals needed for remodeling

Vitamins needed for remodeling
Term
minerals needed for remodeling
Definition
Ca2+ matrix
PO4- matris
Magnesium- needed for osteoblast function
Manganese- needed for lamellae formation
Term
Vitamins needed for remodeling
Definition
D (calcitrol)- encourages Ca2+ removal from bone, also increases intestinal absorption of Ca2+
C- maintains matrix of connective tissues and for collagen synthesis
A- controls activity, distribution coordination of osteoblasts and osteoclasts during development
B12 for osteoblast metabolism and activity
Term
Human growth hormones
Definition
hGH

responsible for general growth of all body tissues

becoming tall or short depends on hGH levels

works with the sex hormones

aids in the growth of new bone

causes degeneration of cartilage cells in epiphyseal plates
Term
Sex Hormones
Definition
androgens and estrogens- important for normal bone growth and development
Term
Insulin and thyroid hormones-
Definition
important for bone and connective tissue growth and metabolism
Term
Bones for Ca2+ homeostasis
Definition
bone tissue is the main reservoir for ca2+ ions in the body

Blood levels are regulated very tightly by the endocrine system

bone serves as a "buffer" to prevent sudden changes in blood Ca2+ levels
Term
Hypercalcemia
Definition
Too much blood Ca2+

heart stops
Term
hypocalcemia
Definition
too little blood Ca2+ breathing stops
Term
Bone fracture classification
Definition
position of the bone ends after fracture

completeness of the break

orientation of the bone to the long axis

whether or not the bones ends penetrate the skin
Term
what are the seven types of bone fractures?
Definition
Nondisplaced

Displaced

Complete

Incomplete

Linear

Transverse

Compound (open)

Simple (closed)
Term
NonDisplaced
Definition
bone ends retain their normal position
Term
Displaced
Definition
Bone ends are out of normal alignment
Term
Complete
Definition
bone is broken all the way through
Term
Incomplete
Definition
bone is not broken all the way through
Term
Linear
Definition
The fracture is parallel to the long axis of the bone
Term
Transverse
Definition
the fracture is perpendicular to the long axis of the bone
Term
Compound (open)
Definition
bone ends penetrate the skin
Term
Simple (closed)
Definition
bone ends do not penetrate the skin
Term
What are the 6 common types of fractures?
Definition
Comminuted

Spiral

Compression

Depressed

Epiphyseal

Greenstick
Term
Comminuted fracture
Definition
bone fragments into three or more pieces; common in the elderly
Term
Spiral Fracture
Definition
Ragged break when bone is excessively twisted; common sports injury
Term
Compression Fracture
Definition
Bone is crushed; common in porous bones
Term
Depressed fracture
Definition
broken bone portion pressed inward; typical skull fracture
Term
epiphyseal Fracture
Definition
epiphysis separates from diaphysis along epiphyseal line; occurs where cartilage cells are dying

plate fracture increases calcification; ends growth in lengty

growth ceases

bone shows epiphyseal lines
Term
Greenstick Fracture
Definition
incomplete fracture where one side of the bone breaks and the other side bends; common in children
Term
Fracture
Definition
any break in a bone
Term
Surgical repair of a bone fracture
Definition
closed reduction

open reduction
Term
Closed reduction
Definition
manipulation without making an incision during surgery
Term
Open reduction
Definition
manipulation after making an incision during surgery
Term
What are the four stages of healing of a bone fracture?
Definition
Hematoma formation

Fibrocartilaginous callus formation

Bony (hard) callus formation

Bone remodeling
Term
hematoma formation
Definition
torn blood vessels hemorrhage

a mass of clotted blood (hematoma) forms at the fracture site

Site becomes swollen, painful, and inflamed

Cells in the area die and have to be removed inflammation, swelling and pain

osteoclasts begin to break down damaged portions of bone
Term
Fibrocartilaginous callus formation
Definition
capillaries grow into the tissue and phagocytic cells begin cleaning debris

fibroblasts secrete collagen to stimulate new connective tissue formation

Chondrocytes develop in avascular areas

The hematoma is transformed a few days into a fibrocartilaginous (soft) callus
Term
Bony (hard) callus formation
Definition
begins 3-4 weeks after injury, and continues until firm union is formed 2-3 months later

Osteoprogenitor cells turn into osteoblasts in the vascular areas

Osteoblasts begin to produce spongy bone

New bone trabeculae appear in the fibrocartilaginous callus

Fibrocartilaginous callus converts into a bony (hard) callus
Term
Bone remodeling
Definition
replacing spongy bone with compact bone where appropriate

excess material on the bone shaft exterior and in the medullary canal is removed

compact bone is laid down to reconstruct shaft walls
Term
Remodeling
Definition
May be accelerated by electrical stimuli ( pulsating electromagnetic fields) which increase osteoblast activity
Term
What are the four homeostatic imbalances
Definition
Osteomalacia (adults

rickets

Osteoporosis

Paget's Disease
Term
Osteomalacia
Definition
caused in adults

bones are inadepuately mineralized causing softened, weakened bones

Main symptom is pain when weight is put on the affected bone

Caused by insufficient calcium in the diet, or by vitamin D deficiency
Term
Rickets
Definition
Bones of children are inadequately mineralized causing softened, weakened bones

Bowed legs and deformities of the pelvis, skull, and rib cage are common

Caused by insufficient calcium in the diet, or by vitamin D deficiency
Term
Osteoporosis
Definition
Group of diseases in which bone reabsoption outpaces bone deposit

spongy bone of the spine is most vulnerable

Occurs most often in postmenopausal women

Bones become so fragile that sneezing or stepping, off a curb can cause fractures
Term
Osteoporosis Treatments
Definition
Calcium and vitamin D supplements

Increased weight- bearing exercise

Hormone (estrogen) replacement therapy (HRT) slows bone loss

Natural progesterone cream prompts new bone growth

Statins increase bone mineral density
Term
Paget's Disease
Definition
Characterized by excessive bone formation and breakdown

Pagetic bone with an excessively high ratio of spongy to compact bone is formed

Pagetic bone along with reduced mineralization, causes spotty weakening of bone

Osteoclast activity wanes, but osteoblast activity continues to work
Term
What are the two main divisions of the Skeleton?
Definition
Axial skeleton

Appendicular skeleton
Term
Axial skeleton
Definition
long axis of the body

skull, vertebral column, rib cage
Term
Appendicular skeleton
Definition
appendanges and connections

upper, lower limbs, pelvic, pectoral girdles
Term
Fetal Skull
Definition
Intramembranous ossification with sutures fusing late so the skull bones can expand to accommodate significant brain growth
Term
Human Body Varies Geographically
Definition
Humans adapted to cold climates often have thick trunks and shorter limbs; those adapted to warn climates tend to be taller and slimmer
Term
Humans are bipedal apes
Definition
Apes have similar behaviors to humans
Term
Morphological trends of humans and apes
Definition
larger brain; taller, flatter face; smaller jaws and teeth, and structural adaptations for makeing the sounds of speech

adaptations to walking bipedally
Term
Paranasal Sinuses
Definition
Probably Vestigial Structures sites for additional olfactory Epithelium in ancestral species
Term
Forelimb
Definition
the pectoral girdle is adapted for braciation in apes and humans
Term
Clinical Consequences of Bipedalism
Definition
Abnormal spinal curvatures

herniated disks

joint problems at the hip, knee and ankle

problems with the arches of the feet

bunions

osteoporosis of the spine and lower limbs difficult labor and delivery

hernias
Term
What are the two classifications of joints
Definition
Functional

Structural
Term
Functional junctions
Definition
Syarhroses

Amphiarthroses

Diarthroses
Term
Structural Joints
Definition
Fibrous

Cartilaginous

Synovial
Term
Synarthroses functional joint
Definition
non-movable joint class
Term
Amphiarthroses joint
Definition
slightly movable joint class
Term
Diarthroses
Definition
freely movable joint class
Term
Fibrous Structural joint
Definition
bones joined by fibrous connective tissue; no joint cavity
Term
Cartilaginous structural joint
Definition
bones joined by cartilage; no joint cavity
Term
Synovial Structural joint
Definition
bones separated by fluid filled cavity
Term
What are the three parts to fibrous joints
Definition
suture

syndesmosis

Gomphosis
Term
Suture
Definition
wavy border with dense fibrous connective tissue which penetrates into both bone
Term
Syndesmosis
Definition
connected by a ligament
Term
Gomphosis
Definition
peg in a socket (teeth)
Term
Gomphosis
Definition
peg in a socket (teeth)
Term
What are the two parts of Cartilaginous Joints
Definition
Synchondroses

Symphyses
Term
What are the three parts of Synchondroses
Definition
hyaline cartilage

Cpiphyseal plate

Most limb bones
Term
What are the two parts of symphyses
Definition
Fibrocartilage

Pelvis, vertebrae
Term
What are the 6 parts of the Synovial Joints
Definition
Articular cartilage

Synovial (joint) cavity

Articular capsule

Synovial fluid

Reinforcing ligaments

Meniscus
Term
Meniscus
Definition
a fibrocartilage pad, e.g., at the temperomandibular joint (TMJ) and at the tibio- femoral (knee) joint
Term
Bursae
Definition
a part of the synovial joint that has flattened sacs filled with synovial fluid
Term
Tendon sheath
Definition
elongated bursa which wraps around a tendon

a part of the synovial joint
Term
gliding plane joint
Definition
Flat planes gliding over each other

Intercarpal or intertarsal joints

part of the Synovial Joints
Term
hinge
Definition
Cylindrical projection fits into a notch

Ulna and humerus

Tibia and femur

Interphalangeal joints

part of the synovial joints
Term
Pivot
Definition
synovial joint

Rounded endo of one bone prtrudes into sleeve or ring of bone or ligament

Atlas and dens of the axis

Proximal radioulnar joint
Term
Condyloid
Definition
Synovial joints

Rounded (convex) articulating surface of one bone fits into concave depression on the other bone

Radiocarpal joints

Metacarpalphalageal joints
Term
Saddle
Definition
Synovial joints

each articular surface has both convex and concave areas

Carpometacarpal joint of the thumb
Term
Ball and Socket
Definition
Synovial Joints

Spherical or hemispherical head of one bone articulates with cuplike socket

Provides greatest rotational flexibility

Shoulder

hip
Term
Factors influencing stability
Definition
Articular surfaces

Ligaments

Muscle tone
Term
Ligaments
Definition
Regular fibrous tissue-only stretch 6% begore tearing
Term
Articular surfaces
Definition
important for smooth functioning of the joint
Term
Muscle tone
Definition
Most important factor influencing stability

tone- resting activity- some minimal level of contraction operating at all times

Muscles, tendons, and ligaments are supplied with nerve endings for feedback control of limb and body position and posture
Term
Knee Joint
Definition
The classic site for repeated injuries

since cartilage does not repair well, the cumulative effect of multiple traumas is to permanently weaken the joint
Term
Sprains
Definition
the ligaments reinforcing a joint are stretched or torn

Partially torn ligaments slowly repair themselves

completely torn ligaments require prompt surgical repair
Term
Cartilage Injuries
Definition
the snap and pop of overstressed cartilage

Common aerobic injury

Repaired with arthroscopic surgery
Term
Dislocations
Definition
Occur when bones are forced out of alignment

Usually accompanied by sprains, inflammation, and joint immobilizaion

Caused by serious falls and are common sports injuries

Subluxation
Term
Subluxation
Definition
partial dislocation of a joint
Term
what are two types of inflammatory and degenrative conditions
Definition
Bursitis

Tendonitis
Term
Bursitis
Definition
an inflammation of a bursa, usually caused by a blow or friction

Symptoms are a pain and swelling

Treated with anti-inflammatory drugs; excessive fluid may be aspirated
Term
Tendonitis
Definition
Inflammation of tendon sheaths typically caused by overuse

Symptoms and treatment are similar to bursitis
Term
Arthritis
Definition
More than 100 different types of inflammatory or degenerative diseases that damage the joints

Most widespread crippling disease in the U.S.

Symptoms- pain, stiffness, and swelling of a joint

Acute forms are caused by bacteria and are treated with antibiotics

Chronic forms included osteoarthritis (OA), rheumatoid arthritis, and gouty arthritis
Term
Developmental aspects of joints
Definition
by week 8 of an embryonic week synovial joints resemble adult joints

advancing years take toll on joints

prudent exercis that coaxes joints through their full range of motion is key to postponing joint problems (swimming is an example)
Term
Developmental aspects of joints: advancing years...
Definition
ligaments and tendons shorten and weaken

Intervertebral discs become more likely to herniate

Most people in their 70s have some degree of OA
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