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Chapter 4
Flashcards for Chapter 4
53
Anatomy
Undergraduate 2
10/01/2009

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Term
Chapter 4
Definition
4.1: Introduction
4.2: Metabolic Processes
4.3: Control of Metabolic Reactions
4.4: Energy for Metabolic Reactions
4.5: Cellular Respiration
4.6: Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis
4.7: Changes in Genetic Information
Term
Introduction
Definition
Metabolic processes – all chemical reactions that occur in the body
There are two (2) types of metabolic reactions:
Term
There are two (2) types of metabolic reactions:
Definition
Anabolism
Catabolism
Term
Anabolism
Definition
Larger molecules are made from smaller ones
Requires energy
Anabolism provides the materials needed for cellular growth and repair
Dehydration synthesis
Term
Catabolism
Definition
Larger molecules are broken down into smaller ones
Releases energy
Used to decompose carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
Water is used to split the substances
Reverse of dehydration synthesis
Term
Dehydration synthesis
Definition
Type of anabolic process
Used to make polysaccharides, triglycerides, and proteins
Dehydration synthesis
Produces water
Term
Control of Metabolic Reactions
Definition
Enzymes
Enzyme Action
Cofactors and Coenzymes
Factors That Alter Enzymes
Regulation of Metabolic Pathways
Term
Enzymes
Definition
1. Control rates of metabolic reactions
2. Lower activation energy needed to start reactions
3. Most are globular proteins with specific shapes
4. Not consumed in chemical reactions
5. Substrate specific
6. Shape of active site determines substrate
Term
Enzyme Action
Definition
Metabolic pathways
Enzyme names commonly:
Term
Metabolic pathways
Definition
Series of enzyme-controlled reactions leading to formation of a product
Each new substrate is the product of the previous reaction
Term
Enzyme names commonly:
Definition
1. Reflect the substrate
2. Have the suffix – ase
3. Examples: sucrase, lactase, protease, lipase
Term
Cofactors and Coenzymes
Definition
A. Cofactors
B. Coenzymes
Term
Cofactors
Definition
1. Make some enzymes active
2. Non-protein component
3. Ions or coenzymes
Term
Coenzymes
Definition
1. Organic molecules that act as cofactors
2. Vitamins
Term
Factors That Alter Enzymes
Definition
1. Heat
2. Radiation
3. Electricity
4. Chemicals
5. Changes in pH
Term
Regulation of Metabolic Pathways
Definition
A. Limited number of regulatory enzymes
B. Negative feedback
Term
4.4: Energy for Metabolic Reactions
Definition
Energy is the capacity to change something; it is the ability to do work
Common forms of energy:
ATP Molecules
Release of Chemical Energy
Term
Common forms of energy:
Definition
1. Heat
2. Light
3. Sound
4. Electrical energy
5. Mechanical energy
6. Chemical energy
Term
ATP Molecules
Definition
A. Each ATP molecule has three parts:
B. Third phosphate attached by high-energy bond
C. When the bond is broken, energy is transferred
D. When the bond is broken, ATP becomes ADP
E. ADP becomes ATP through phosphorylation
F. Phosphorylation requires energy release from cellular respiration
Term
A. Each ATP molecule has three parts:
Definition
1. An adenine molecule
2. A ribose molecule
3. Three phosphate molecules in a chain
Term
Release of Chemical Energy
Definition
A. Chemical bonds are broken to release energy
B. We burn glucose in a process called oxidation
Term
4.5: Cellular Respiration
Definition
A. Occurs in a series of reactions:
B. Produces:
C. Includes:
Term
A. Occurs in a series of reactions:
Definition
1. Glycolysis
2. Citric acid cycle (aka TCA or Kreb’s Cycle)
3. Electron transport system
Term
B. Produces:
Definition
1. Carbon dioxide
2. Water
3. ATP (chemical energy)
4. Heat
Term
C. Includes:
Definition
1. Anaerobic reactions (without O2) - produce little ATP
2. Aerobic reactions (requires O2) - produce most ATP
Term
Glycolysis
Definition
A. Series of ten reactions
B. Breaks down glucose into 2 pyruvic acid molecules
C. Occurs in cytosol
D. Anaerobic phase of cellular respiration
E. Yields two ATP molecules per glucose molecule
F. Summarized by three main phases or events:
Term
F. Summarized by three main phases or events:
Definition
1. Phosphorylation
2. Splitting
3. Production of NADH and ATP
Term
Glycolysis
Definition
A. Anaerobic Reactions
B. Aerobic Reactions
Term
Glycolysis - Anaerobic Reactions
Definition
A. Event 1 - Phosphorylation
B. Event 2 – Splitting (cleavage)
C. Event 3 – Production of NADH and ATP
D. If oxygen is not available:
Term
A. Event 1 - Phosphorylation
Definition
1. Two phosphates added to glucose
2. Requires ATP
Term
B. Event 2 – Splitting (cleavage)
Definition
1. 6-carbon glucose split into two 3-carbon molecules
Term
C. Event 3 – Production of NADH and ATP
Definition
1. Hydrogen atoms are released
2. Hydrogen atoms bind to NAD+ to produce NADH
3. NADH delivers hydrogen atoms to electron transport system if oxygen is available
4. ADP is phosphorylated to become ATP
5. Two molecules of pyruvic acid are produced
6. Two molecules of ATP are generated
Term
D. If oxygen is not available:
Definition
1. Electron transport system cannot accept new electrons from NADH
2. Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid
3. Glycolysis is inhibited
4. ATP production is less than in aerobic reactions
Term
Glycolysis - Aerobic Reactions (If oxygen is available)
Definition
1. Pyruvic acid is used to produce acetyl CoA
2. Citric acid cycle begins
3. Electron transport system functions
4. Carbon dioxide and water are formed
5. 34 molecules of ATP are produced per each glucose molecule
Term
Citric Acid Cycle
Definition
A. Begins when acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetic acid to produce citric acid
B. Citric acid is changed into oxaloacetic acid through a series of reactions
C. Cycle repeats as long as pyruvic acid and oxygen are available
D. For each citric acid molecule:
1. One ATP is produced
2. Eight hydrogen atoms are transferred to NAD+ and FAD
3. Two CO2 produced
Term
Electron Transport System
Definition
A. NADH and FADH2 carry electrons to the ETS
B. ETS is a series of electron carriers located in cristae of mitochondria
C. Energy from electrons transferred to ATP synthase
D. ATP synthase catalyzes the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP
E. Water is formed
Term
Carbohydrate Storage
Definition
A. Carbohydrate molecules from foods can enter:
B. Excess glucose stored as:
Term
A. Carbohydrate molecules from foods can enter:
Definition
1. Catabolic pathways for energy production
2. Anabolic pathways for storage
Term
B. Excess glucose stored as:
Definition
1. Glycogen (primarily by liver and muscle cells)
2. Fat
3. Converted to amino acids
Term
4.6: Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis
Definition
Instruction of cells to synthesize proteins comes from a nucleic acid, DNA
Genetic Information
Structure of DNA
DNA Replication
Genetic Code
RNA Molecules
Protein Synthesis
Term
Genetic Information
Definition
A. Genetic information – instructs cells how to construct proteins; stored in
B. Gene – segment of DNA that codes for one protein
C. Genome – complete set of genes
D. Genetic Code – method used to translate a sequence of nucleotides of DNA
Term
Structure of DNA
Definition
A. Two polynucleotide chains (antiparallel)
B. Hydrogen bonds hold nitrogenous bases together
C. Bases pair specifically (A-T and C-G)
D. Forms a helix
E. DNA wrapped about histones forms chromosomes
Term
DNA Replication
Definition
A. Hydrogen bonds break between bases
B. Double strands unwind and pull apart
C. New nucleotides pair with exposed bases
D. Controlled by DNA polymerase
Term
Genetic Code
Definition
A. Specification of the correct sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
B. Each amino acid is represented by a triplet code
Term
RNA Molecules
Definition
A. Messenger RNA (mRNA):
B. Transfer RNA (tRNA):
C. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA):
Term
A. Messenger RNA (mRNA):
Definition
Making of mRNA (copying of DNA) is transcription
Delivers genetic information from nucleus to the cytoplasm
Single polynucleotide chain
Formed beside a strand of DNA
RNA nucleotides are complementary to DNA nucleotides (exception – no thymine in RNA; replaced with uracil)
Term
B. Transfer RNA (tRNA):
Definition
1. Carries amino acids to mRNA
2. Carries anticodon to mRNA
3. Translates a codon of mRNA into an amino acid
Term
C. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA):
Definition
1. Provides structure and enzyme activity for ribosomes
Term
4.7: Changes in Genetic Information
Definition
Only about 1/10th of one percent of the human genome differs from person to person
Nature of Mutations
Protection Against Mutation
Inborn Errors of Metabolism
Term
Nature of Mutations
Definition
A. Mutations – change in genetic information
B. Result when:
C. May or may not change the protein
Term
Protection Against Mutation
Definition
A. Repair enzymes correct the mutations
Term
Inborn Errors of Metabolism
Definition
A. Occurs from inheriting a mutation that then alters an enzyme
B. This creates a block in an otherwise normal biochemical pathway
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