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Chapter 4
The Tissue Level of Organization
81
Anatomy
Undergraduate 2
10/29/2017

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Term
What are the 4 types of tissue?
Definition
Epithelial, connective, muscle, and neural
Term
Characteristics of epithelia
Definition
1.Cellularity:composed almost entirely of cells held together by cell junctions
2.Polarity: exposed apical surface and an attached basal surface.
3. Attachment: bound to a thin noncellular basement membrane (basal lamina).
4. Avascularity: no blood vessels, obtain nutrients through diffusion
5.Regeneration: damaged & lost cells continuously replaced through stem cell division, very high rates.
Term
4 Essential functions of epithelia
Definition
1. Provide physical protection from abrasion, dehydration, and destruction by chemical or biological agents.
2.Control permeability.
3. Provide sensation: neuroepithelium provide sensations of smell, taste, sight, equilibrium, and hearing.
4.Produce specialized secretions: glandular epithelia
Term
3 types of cell junctions
Definition
1. tight junctions (occluding junction)
2. Gap junctions
3. Desmosomes (Macula adherens)
a)spot desmosomes
b)hemidesmosomes
Term
Where is epithelia found?
Definition
-Covers exposed surfaces
-Lines internal passageways
-Forms glands
Term
Connective tissue
Definition
Fills internal spaces
Supports other tissues
Transports materials
Stores energy
Term
Muscle tissue
Definition
Specialized for contraction: found in skeletal muscle, heart muscle, and walls of hollow organs.
Term
Neural tissue
Definition
Carries electrical signals from one part of the body to another.
Term
In order to perform functions, highly specialized structure- polarity: cell divided into 2 distinct regions
Definition
Apical surfaces: exposed to internal or external environment
Microvilli increase absorption or secretion
Cilia (ciliated epithelium) move fluid
Basolateral surfaces:
Base- cellular attachment
Sides- cells contact neighbors
Term
Intercellular connections
Definition
Epithelial cells tightly bound together
CAMs (cell adhesion molecules)- transmembrane proteins
Intercellular cement- proteoglycans contain hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid)
Term
Occluding (tight) junctions
Definition
Between two plasma membranes
Adhesion belt attaches to terminal web
Prevents passage of water and solutes
Isolates wastes in the lumen of GI tract
Term
Gap junctions
Definition
Allow rapid communication
Held together by connexons (channel proteins)
Allow ions to pass between cells
Coordinate contractions in heart muscle
Term
Desmosomes (Macula adherens)
Definition
CAMs, dense areas, intercellular cement link plasma membranes
Spot desmosomes- tie cells together & allow bending, twisting
Hemidesmosomes- attach cells to the basal lamina
Term
Spot Desmosomes
Definition
Small discs connected to intermediate filaments, which function to stabilize cell shape
Term
Hemidesmosome
Definition
Attach cell to extracellular filaments in basal lamina

Stabilize cell position and anchor to underlying tissues
Term
Where are simple squamous epithelia found?
Definition
Mesothelia line pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal cavities; endothelia line heart and blood vessels, portions of kidney tubules; inner lining of cornea; alveoli of lungs
Term
Functions of simple squamous epithelium?
Definition
Reduces friction, controls vessel permeability, performs absorption and secretion
Term
Where are stratified squamous epithelia found?
Definition
surface of skin; lining of mouth, throat, esophagus, rectum, anus, and vagina.
Term
what are the functions of stratified squamous epithelium?
Definition
Provides physical protection against abrasion, pathogens, and chemical attack. Apical layers of epithelia are packed with filaments of the protein keratin, making the cells tough and water resistant. Non-keratinized cells are found in the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, anus, and vagina.
Term
Where are simple cuboidal epithelia found?
Definition
Glands, ducts, portions of kidney tubules, thyroid gland
Term
what are the functions of simple cuboidal epithelia?
Definition
Provide limited protection, secretion, and absorption
Term
Where are stratified cuboidal epithelia found?
Definition
Rare; Found along the ducts of sweat glands, and in the larger ducts of the mammary glands.
Term
Transitional epithelia
Definition
Tolerates repeated cycles of stretching and recoiling without damage.
Found in urinary bladder, renal pelvis, and ureters.
Term
Where is simple columnar epithelium found?
Definition
Lining of stomach, intestines, gall bladder, uterine tubes, and collecting ducts of kidneys.
Term
What are the functions of simple columnar epithelia?
Definition
The secretions protect against chemical stresses, move mucus with cilia
Term
Where is stratified columnar epithelium found?w
Definition
Small areas of the pharynx, epiglottis, anus, mammary glands, salivary gland ducts, and urethra.
Term
What is the function of stratified columnar epithelia?
Definition
protection
Term
What is an endocrine gland do?
Definition
Produces endocrine secretions (hormones)that are released directly into the surrounding interstitial fluid. No ducts.
Term
Where are endocrine glands found?
Definition
Lining of the digestive tract, or as separate organs, such as pancreas, thyroid gland, pituitary gland, thymus
Term
What are exocrine glands?
Definition
Produce exocrine secretions which are discharged onto an epithelial surface through tubular ducts.Ex: sweat, tears, milk, and enzymes entering the digestive tract.
Term
Where are pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelia found?
Definition
Lining of nasal cavity, trachea, and bronchi; portions of male reproductive tract.
Term
functions of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelia?
Definition
Protection, secretion, move mucus with cilia
Term
What are 3 modes of secretion?
Definition
Merocrine, apocrine, and holocrine
Term
Merocrine secretion
Definition
most common, the product is released from secretory vessels by exocytosis.
Term
Apocrine secretion
Definition
Involves the loss of cytoplasm as well as the secretory product. The apical portion of the cytoplasm becomes packed with secretory vesicles and is then shed.
Term
Holocrine secretion
Definition
The entire cell becomes packed with secretory vesicles and then bursts, releasing the secretion but killing the cell.
Term
Serous glands
Definition
Secrete a watery solution that contains enzymes. Ex: parotid salivary glands
Term
Describe mucous glands.
Definition
Secrete mucins that hydrate to form mucus. Ex: sublingual salivary glands, submucosal glands of the small intestine.
Term
Describe mixed exocrine glands.
Definition
Contain more than 1 type of gland cell. May produce 2 different exocrine secretions, 1 serous and 1 mucous. Ex:submandibular salivary gland
Term
Mucous (goblet) cells
Definition
The only unicellular exocrine gland, secrete mucins.
Term
What are 3 characteristics describing the structure of multicellular exocrine glands?
Definition
1. The structure of the duct.
2. The shape of the secretory portion of the gland.
3. The relationship between the ducts and the glandular areas.
Term
Simple glands
Definition
Simple Tubular: ex. intestinal glands
Simple coiled tubular ex: merocrine sweat glands
Simple branched tubular: ex:gastric glands, mucous glands of esophagus, tongue, duodenum
Simple alveolar (acinar) ex: not found in adult, a stage in development of simple branched glands
Simple branched alveolar: ex: sebaceous (oil) glands
Term
Compound glands
Definition
Compound tubular ex: mucous glands in mouth, bulbourethral glands, seminiferous tubules
Compound alveolar ex: mammary glands
Compound tubuloalveolar ex: salivary glands, glands of respiratory passages, pancreas
Term
3 basic components of connective tissue
Definition
1.specialized cells
2.extracellular protein fibers
3.ground substance
Term
What are the functions of connective tissue?
Definition
*establishing a structural framework for the body-bone
*transporting fluids and dissolved materials-blood
*Protecting delicate organs
*Supporting, surrounding, and interconnecting other types of tissue
*Storing energy, esp. in the form of triglycerides-fat
*Defending the body from invading microorganisms
Have no contact with the outside environment
Term
What are the 3 categories of connective tissue?
Definition
Connective tissue proper
Fluid connective tissue
Supporting connective tissue
Term
What are the cells in connective tissue proper?
Definition
Fibroblasts
Fibrocytes
Mesenchymal cells
Macrophages
Mast cells
Lymphocytes
Microphages
Adipocytes
Melanocytes
Term
Describe fibroblasts.
Definition
Most abundant, only cells that are always present in connective tissue proper, secrete hyaluronan (cellular cement). Extracellular fluid, hyaluronan, and proteins interact to form the proteoglycans that make ground substance viscous. Secrete protein subunits that assemble to form large extracellular fibers.
Term
Describe fibrocytes.
Definition
the 2nd most abundant fixed cell. They differentiate from fibroblasts.Spindle shaped cells that maintain the connective tissue fibers of connective tissue proper.
Term
Tubular glands
Definition
Form tubes, straight or coiled
Term
Alveolar exocrine glands
Definition
Blind pockets
Term
Tubuloalveolar exocrine glands
Definition
Both tubes and blind pockets
Term
Describe macrophages.
Definition
Big eaters” immune system:
Eat pathogens & damaged cells
Fixed macrophages- stay in tissue
Free macrophages- migrate
Term
Describe adipocytes.
Definition
Fat cells- each cell stores a single, large fat droplet
Term
Mesenchymal cells
Definition
Stem cells that respond to injury or infection:
Differentiate into fibroblasts, macrophages
Term
Describe melanocytes.
Definition
Synthesize and store the brown pigment melanin.
Term
Mast cells
Definition
Stimulate inflammation after injury or infection:
Release histamine and heparin
Basophils (white blood cells) also contain histamine and heparin
Term
Lymphocytes
Definition
Specialized immune cells in lymphatic system:
B-cells (plasma cells)- produce antibodies
T-cells
Term
Microphages
Definition
neutrophils and eosinophils-Phagocytic white blood cells:
Respond to signals from macrophages & mast cells
Term
Melanoctyes
Definition
Synthesize and store melanin.Abundant in the connective tissues of the eye and the dermis of the skin.
Term
What are the 3 types of connective tissue fibers?
Definition
Collagen, Reticular, and Elastic
Term
Collagen fibers
Definition
most common in connective tissue proper. Long, straight, and unbranched. Strong and flexible.
Ex. tendons and ligaments
Term
Tendons
Definition
Connect muscle to bone
Term
Ligaments
Definition
Connect bone to bone
Term
Reticular fibers
Definition
Network of interwoven fibers- stroma
Strong & flexible
Stabilize functional cells (parenchyma) & blood vessels, nerves
Sheaths around organs
Term
Elastic fibers
Definition
Contain elastin, branched and wavy. Elastic ligaments are rare, but have important functions such as interconnecting vertebrae
Term
ground substance
Definition
fills the spaces between cells and surround connective tissue fibers Clear, colorless, viscous. Slows the spread of pathogens.
Term
Embryonic Connective tissue (mesenchyme)
Definition
1st connective tissue in an embryo. Gives rise to all other connective tissues.
Term
Mucous connective tissue (Wharton's jelly)
Definition
loose connective tissue found in the umbilical cord
Term
4 types of loose connective tissue
Definition
Mucous connective tissue in embryos
Areolar
Reticular
Adipose
Term
Functions of loose connective tissue
Definition
Fill spaces between organs
cushion and stabilize specialized cells
support epithelia
Term
Areolar tissue
Definition
Least specialized
Open framework
Viscous ground substance most volume
Elastic fibers

Holds blood vessels & capillary beds
Under skin (subcutaneous layer), padding
Term
Adipose tissue
Definition
Contains many adipocytes (fat cells)

Types of adipose tissue
White fat:
Most common
Stores fat, absorbs shocks, slows heat loss (insulation)

Brown fat:
More vascularized
Adipocytes have many mitochondria
When stimulated by nervous system, fat break down accelerates, releasing energy
Energy absorbed from surrounding tissues- heats body
Term
Adipose tissue
Definition
Adipose cells
Adipocytes in adults do not divide:
Expand to store fat
Shrink as fats are released

Mesenchymal cells divide and differentiate:
Produce more fat cells when more storage is needed
Term
Reticular tissue
Definition
Provides support
Complex, 3D network- stroma
Support functional cells (parenchyma)
Reticular organs
Spleen, liver, lymph nodes, and bone marrow
Term
Where is areolar tissue found?
Definition
within and deep to the dermis of the skin,between muscles, around joints, blood vessels, and nerves
Term
Where is adipose tissue found?
Definition
deep to the skin, esp.at sides, buttocks, and breasts; padding around eyes and kidneys
Term
What are the functions of adipose tissue?
Definition
Provides padding and cushions shocks;insulates (reduces heat loss); stores energy
Term
what are the functions of areolar tissue?
Definition
cushions organs, provides support but permits independent movement; phagocytic cells provide defense against pathogens.
Term
Where is reticular tissue found?
Definition
liver, kidney, spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow
Term
What is the function of reticular tissue?
Definition
Provides supporting framework.
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