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Chapter 26: Civilizations in Crisis
The Ottoman Empire, the Islamic Heartlands, and Qing China
20
History
10th Grade
02/11/2014

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Term
page 603

ayan
Definition
Wealthy landed elite that emerged in early decades of Abbasid rule.

Significance: -major factor in Ottoman decline
-often engaged in corrupt acts of cheating the peasantry out of money

Analyze: -colluded with provincial officials to rip off both the peasantry and the sultan
Term
page 605

Selim III
Definition
Sultan who ruled Ottoman Empire from 1789-1807; aimed at improving administrative efficiency and building a new army and navy; toppled by Janissaries in 1807.

Significance: -first of sultans to enact reforms in long period of time
-reforms angered powerful bureaucratic factions and Janissaries

Analyze: -conservative tendencies of Janissaries and bureaucratic officials made reform difficult
-Selim was dethroned and killed
Term
page 605

Mahmud II

(1785-1839)
Definition
Ottoman sultan; built private, professional army; fomented revolution of Janissaries and crushed them with private army; destroyed power of Janissaries and their religious allies; initiated reform of empire on Western precedents.
Significance: -defeated Janissary revolts and instituted Western-style reforms
-established diplomatic corps and exchanged ambassadors with Europe
-improved military training
Analyze: -coerced ayan into submission and ignored conservative suggestions of ulama and advisors
Term
page 605

Tanzimat reforms
Definition
Series of reforms in Ottoman empire between 1839 and 1876; est. Western-style university, state postal system, railways, extensive legal reforms; resulted in creation of new constitution in 1876.

Significance: -instituted use of Western technologies (railways, universities, etc.)
-weakened influence of artisans

Analyze: -success of Western nations made them admirable to other cultures
-treaty with Britain eliminated previous import taxes meant to protect merchants from Western competition
Term
page 606

Abdul Hamid
Definition
Ottoman sultan who attempted to return to despotic absolutism during reign from 1878-1908; nullified constitution and restricted civil liberties; deposed in coup in 1908.

Significance: -invalidated constitution, restricted freedom of press, instituted harsh criminal punishment
-pushed for Westernization in regard to the military, education, and systems of communication

Analyze: -growing threat from Westernized officers and civilians made Hamid worry about the security of his position
Term
page 606

Ottoman Society for Union and Progress
Definition
Organization of political agitators in opposition to rule of Hamid; also called "Young Turks"; desired to restore 1876 constitution.

Significance: -professed allegiance to imperial regime in hopes of restoring constitution and resuming widespread reforms
-utilized secret printing presses to denounce regime

Analyze: -gaining support of imperial regime was key in future modernization and saving the empire
Term
page 608

Murad

(1790-1820)
Definition
Head of the coalition of Mamluk rulers in Egypt; opposed Napoleonic invasion of Egypt and suffered devastating defeat; failure destroyed Mamluk government and revealed vulnerability of Muslim core.

Significance: -Napoleon's defeat of Murad was not only humiliating, but brought other internal issues to the surface

Analyze: -made Europeans appear even more threatening and further showed the lack of organization within the Mamluk gov't
Term
page 608

Muhammad Ali
Definition
Won power struggle in Egypt following fall of Mamluks; est. mastery of all Egypt by 1811; introduced effective army based on Western tactics and supply and a variety of other reforms; by 1830s was able to challenge Ottoman gov't in Constantinople; died 1848.
Significance: -aimed to rebuild army after Western models and techniques
-despite ambition, few widespread reforms were actually achieved
Analyze: -intense opposition from Western manufacturers made funding for army difficult and strained merchants of Egypt
Term
page 610

Khedives
Definition
Descendants of Muhammad Ali in Egypt after 1867; formal rulers of Egypt despite French and English intervention until overthrown by military coup in 1952.

Significance: -lacked ambition of Ali and were content to remain in Egypt and Sudanic lands

Analyze: -lack of innovation and growth made rulers easier to overthrow
Term
page 610

Suez Canal
Definition
Built across isthmus of Suez to connect Med. Sea with Red Sea in 1869; financed by European investors; w/ increasing indebtedness of khedives, permitted intervention of British into Egyptian politics to protect their investment.
Significance: -strategic location for European powers, both economically and militarily
-caused fretting amongst khedival regime and Ottoman empire
Analyze: -geographic location allowed European powers to gain access to colonies more easily
-regime was beginning to drown in debt; empire opposed Westernization
Term
page 611

al-Afghani
Definition
Muslim thinker at the end of the 19th century; stressed need for adoption of Western scientific learning and tech; recognized importance of tradition of rational inquiry.

Significance: -stressed need to utilize knowledge from West
-rebuked idea that all information from the Qur'an should be regarded as fact

Analyze: -shared information between Muslims and Europeans justified desire to adopt intellectual innovations
-religion was becoming less relevant with science on the rise
Term
page 611

Muhammad Abduh
Definition
Disciple of al-Afghani; Muslim thinker at the end of the 19th century; stressed need for adoption of Western scientific learning and tech; recognized importance of tradition of rational inquiry.

Significance: -stressed need to utilize knowledge from West
-rebuked idea that all information from the Qur'an should be regarded as fact

Analyze: -shared information between Muslims and Europeans justified desire to adopt intellectual innovations
-religion was becoming less relevant with science on the rise
Term
page 611

Ahmad Arabi

(1841-1911)
Definition
Egyptian military officer who led a revolt against the Turkic dominance in the army in 1882, which forced the Khedival regime to call in British forces for support.

Significance: -major challenge to influence of foreign interests
-led revolt against Khedival regime

Analyze: -corruption of Khedives sparked rioting
-fearful regime called for help from Brits
Term
page 612

Khartoum
Definition
River town that was administrative center of Egyptian authority in Sudan.

Significance: -site of majority of Egyptian power, which was notoriously corrupt

Analyze: -opportunity to manipulate and trick agrarian peasantry out of money, pit tribes against one another, etc.
Term
page 612

Muhammad Ahmad
Definition
Head of Sudanic Sufi brotherhood; claimed descent from prophet Muhammad; proclaimed both Egyptians and British as infidels; launched revolt to purge Islam of impurities; took Khartoum in 1883; AKA Mahdi.

Significance: -physical appearance and alleged visions made Ahmad a celebrity of prophetic proportions
-revolted against "infidel" Egyptians and British

Analyze: -large following and guerilla-like tactics resulted in numerous victories
-revolts spurred by beliefs that infidels had corrupted Islam and degrading traditions
Term
page 613

Khalifa Abdallahi
Definition
Successor of Muhammad Achmad as leader of Mahdists in Sudan; est. state in Sudan; defeated by British General Kitchener in 1898

Significance: -skillful military commander
-aimed to rid society of indulgences such as alcohol, dancing, theft, prostitution, etc. were banned
-defeated by Kitchener

Analyze: -weak weaponry of Mahdists was no match for technologically advanced Europeans; Mahdist state collapsed c. 1899
Term
page 613

Nurhaci

(1559-1626)
Definition
Architect of Manchu unity; created distinctive Manchu banner armies; controlled most of Manchuria; adopted Chinese bureaucracy and most ceremonies in Manchuria; entered China and successfully captured Ming capital of Beijing.
Significance: -brought many territories under his control and modeled bureaucracy after Chinese
-able to capture Beijing and establish Qing dynasty
Analyze: -appeal of seemingly stable Chinese gov't caused Sinification amongst Manchurians
-weakened state of Ming dynasty made entrance into territory more simple
Term
page 613

Banner armies
Definition
8 armies of Manchu tribes identified by separate flags; created by Nurhaci in early 17th century; utilized to defeat Ming emperor and est. Qing dynasty.

Significance: -distinguished various Manchu tribes
-used to defeat Ming emperor and form Qing dynasty

Analyze: -declining state of Ming Empire made access into Chinese territory less difficult; organization of armies was helpful as well
Term
page 614

Qing
Definition
Manchu dynasty that seized control of China in mid-17th century after decline of Ming; forced submission of nomadic peoples far to west and compelled tribute from Vietnam and Burma in south.

Significance: -first dynasty after decline of Ming Empire; ruled area larger than any other dynasty besides Tang
-retained Chinese political system and governmental positions/qualifications

Analyze: -meant to appease newly conquered ethnic Chinese and avoid rebellions of imperial predecessors
Term
page 615

Kangxi
Definition
Confucian scholar and Manchu emperor of Qing dynasty from 1661-1722; est. high degree of Sinification among Manchus.

Significance: -supporter of Chinese arts and education; initiated greater levels of Sinification

Analyze: -fascination with Chinese culture stemmed back to his predecessors, hence the willingness to patronize the native cultures
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