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Chapter 2
Chapter 2
82
Anatomy
Undergraduate 1
01/23/2012

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Term
Chemistry
Definition
study of matter
Term
Matter
Definition

consists three forms

Solid, Liquid, or Gas

 

Form of matter made up of elements

Term
Element
Definition

a substance that cannot be broken down or converted into other substances by ordidary chemical reacton

 

92 natually occuring element and over a dozen of man-made elements. 96% of living matter composed by four elements: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen. The remaining is 4% is made of elements:calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium. Trace elements:copper, iron,and zinc

Term
Atom
Definition

smallest unit or particles having same chemical and physical properties of an element

 

each element made up of ____

Term
Atoms proposed of two parts which contain subatomic particles
Definition

1.Nucleus-is the center of atom and it contains two subatomic particles

  • Protons- are postively charge and they have heavy mass
  • Neutrons-are no charge or are neutral and they have heavy mass

2. Orbitals and enery levels-they contain one type of subatomic particle

  • electrons-are negatively charge particle and they have very light mass

The number of protons in nucleus Equal the number of electrons in orbital and energy level

Term
atomic number
Definition

the number of protons in the nucleus

 

 

 

 

(Each element has a specific atomic number and no two elements have the same atomic number)

 

 

 

Term
mass number
Definition

the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in nucleus

 

 

 

 

(The atomic number of an atom never change, but the mass number may change)

Term
Isotopes
Definition

Atoms of an element that have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons

 

 

 

 

 

(Isotope of element have same chemical properties, but vary in their physical properties)

Term

Orbital

 

Definition

the pathway an electrons follows as it moves around nucleus

 

 

 

 

Each orbital may contain maximum of two electrons

 

 

 

 

 

 

Term
First energy level
Definition

the energy level closest to the nucleus has the lowest amount of enegy

 

It contain maximum of two electron and one orbital

Term
second energy level
Definition

Contain the maximum of eight electrons and four orbitals

 

The electrons of this energy level have the same energy but differrent space.

 

Term
third energy level
Definition

the maximum number of electron can increase but an atom is stable when it contains eight electrons in it outermost energy level.

 

 

 

As the enerygy levels are farther from the nucleus, the amoun of the energy increase and the amount of the electrons they can hold increase.

Term
valence electrons
Definition

the electrons in the outermost of the energy level of an atom determine chemical properties of an atom

 

it funtions in the information of chemical bonds between atoms

Term
Chemical bonds
Definition

Four major types

  1. Covalent bonds
  2. Polar covalent bonds
  3. Ionic bonds
  4. Hydrogen bonds
Term
Covalent bond
Definition
is the strongest bonds. It found in the most biological or organic molecules. It is formed when a pair of electrons is equally shared between atoms.
Term
Double Covalent Bonds
Definition
two pairs of electrons shared, such as carbon
Term
Polar covalent bonds
Definition

they are fairly strong bonds. They are formed when the electrons unequally shared between atoms

 

The electrons spend more time in the outermost energy level of one atom more than they do in the outermost energy level of other atom

 

The result is the formation of a polar molecule

Term
Ionic bonds
Definition
they are fairly strong bonds except water. They are formed when electrons are gained and lost between atoms.
Term
Ions
Definition
The gain or lost of the electrons forms charged atoms
Term
anion
Definition
the atom that gains the electrons become negatively charged
Term
cation
Definition

the atom that lost the electrons become postitively charged

 

 

 

 

The atoms held together by the opposite charges

Term
hydrogen bonds
Definition

they are the weakest bonds. they formed between polar molecule.

 

 

the slightly positively charged atom of one polar molecule is attracted to the slightly negatively charged atom of another polar molecule.

The slightly positive charged atom is always hydrogen

the slightly negative charged atom is oxygen and nitrogen

Term
Chemical reactions
Definition

involve making, breaking, and rearranged chemical bonds to form new substance.

 

They indicated by writing chemical equations. On the left side of the equation are the starting substances or reactants. On the right side of the equation are the ending substances or products. An arrow is used to indicate the direction

 there are three major types: synthesis reaction, decoposition reaction and exchange or displacement reactions

Term
reversible
Definition
Most of the chemical reaction in the human body is the______. It is indicated by using two arrows going in opposite directions. The reaction occurs as fast in one direction as it does in opposite direction.
Term
synthesis reaction
Definition

atoms or small molecule combine to form larger more complex molecule and energy is stored

 

they are involved in the specific type of metabolism known as anabolism. In reference to energy synthesis reaction are endergonic.

Term

decomposition reactions

 

Definition

larger complex molecule are broken down to smaller simpler molecule and energy is realeased

 

the type of metabolism involved is known as catabolism.In inference to energy the reactions are exergonic.

Term
exchange or displacement reactions
Definition

two or more molecules are broken down and recombine to form two or more different molecules

 

AB+CD------> AC+BD

 

 

Most reactions in human body are _________

Term
Oxidation
Definition
the loss of the electrons and the substance that loses the electrons has been oxidized
Term
reduction
Definition
the gain of the electrons and the substance that gain electrons has been reduced
Term
hydrogen atom
Definition
If a covalent bond is involves, oxidation and reduction is the gain and loss of a _______. Oxidation is the loss of _______ and reduction is the gain of a ______.
Term

Inorganic molecules and compounds

 

Definition

are small simple substances usually held together with ionic bonds and they usually do not contain element carbon

Ex water, acids, bases, buffers, and salts

Term
water
Definition

60 to 80% of human body is ____. It is essential to life and has several properties that are important to life

  1. Sovent
  2. High specific heat
  3. High heat of vaporization
  4. Reactivity
  5. Cushioning

 

Term
Solvent
Definition
water is polar molecule and is capable of dissolving many substances that needed for chemical reaction. Water surrounds particles and prevent them from bonding back together by forming Hydration shells. In the body, Water transports nutrients, wastes, respiratory gas (oxigen and carbon dioxide) and is the major component of fluids
Term

High specific heat

 

Definition

the amount of heat energy needed to raise temperature of 1 gram of a substance 1 degree centigrate.

 

Heat energy cause molecule move more rapidly

Term
high heat of vaporization
Definition
is the amount of heat required to convert liquid water into a gas or water vapor
Term
reactivity
Definition
many chemical reaction in the body require or release water. Catabolic reactions require water, Anabolic reaction release water.
Term
cushioning
Definition
prevent physical trauma to cells, tissues, and organs. Blood plasma prevents blood cells, cerebrospinal fluid prevents brain and spinal cord, cytoplasm prevent organells
Term
acids and bases
Definition
Substances may dissolve or dissociate in water to form ions
Term

Acid

 

 

 

Base

Definition

it dissociate in water to form hydrogen ion (H+) and anion

 

 

 

It dissociate in water to form hydroxyl ion (OH-) and cation

Term
concentration of acid and base
Definition

concentration of hydrogen ion and hydroxyl ion is measured by pH. The pH scale ranges from 0-14 and islogarithmic to the base 10

The pH of 7 is neutral. The hydrogen ion (H+) and hydroxyl ion (OH-) concentration are equal.

The pH below 7 is an acid with the strongest acid having in pH near 0. The concetration of an acid change by a factor of 10 with each decrease in pH number.

The pH above 7 is a base or alkaline. The concentration of a base change by a factor of 1/10 with each increase in pH number

Term
Buffers
Definition
the substance which keep the pH within a certain range in order to maitain homeostasis . If the H+ concentration increase above normal, a buffer will take up or bond with with excess H+. If the H+concentration falls below normal, a buffer will release H+
Term
Salt
Definition

It is formed when anion of an acid combine with the cation of the base.

 

The H+from the acid combine with the OH-from the base to form water H20

 

Acid, base, and salt dissolved or dissociates in water, Ions are formed

Term
Electrolytes
Definition
Ions are electrically charged particle that can conduct a electrical current .It function in contraction muscle, nerve impulse, bones information, blood clotting, and acid base balance
Term
Organic molecules and compound
Definition

large complex molecule and held together by covalent bonds, they always contain element carbon

 

ex, carbohydrates, lipids, nutrient, proteins, nuclei acid

Term
Hydrocarbon chain
Definition

Carbon atoms may form long chain and bonded to the carbon atoms are hydrogen atoms, this structure referred to as _________

In living organism, it fold to form ring structure

 

Carbon contain 4 electrons in it outermost energy level and can share electrons with four other atoms such as hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen(N), other carbon(C)

Term
functional group
Definition

when organic compound are formed, bonding of molecule occurs between_____________ such as

Hydroxyl group -OH

Carbonxyle group- COOH

Phosphate group- PO4

Amino group- NH2

 

Term
Carbohydrates
Definition

provide short term and long term energy storage and are composed of C, H, and O

 

There are three classes

  1. Monosaccharides
  2. Disaccharides
  3. Polysaccharides
Term

Monosaccharide

 

Definition

"simple sugar"

they composed of C,H, and O in a ratio of 1C:2H:1O

 

Substances that have same fomula but different arrangement of atom called isomers


The most abundant of 6 carbons monosaccharide in the human body are called glucose. The two important 5 carbons monosacharides are called deoxyribose( found in DNA) and ribose( found in RNA)

Term
Disaccharide
Definition

"double sugar"

are two monosacharide joined together by covanlent bond.

 

Common disaccharide are

sucrose(table sugar)---glucose+fructose

maltose(malt sugar)---glucose+glucose

lactose(milk sugar)---glucose+galactose

 when water added to it, it broken down into two monosaccharide is called hydrolysis

 

Term
Dehydration synthesis or condensation
Definition

During the bonding ,The H from one monosaccharide bond with the OH from the second monosaccharide to form water molecule. The water molecule is released and the two monosaccharides bond where H and OH were.

 

 

Term
Polysaccharide
Definition

"many sugar"

are long chain of a few hundred to a few thounsand monosaccharide linked together by dehydration sythesis

they provide long term energy storage and some are structural support.

Term
Startch
Definition
It is found in the plants and consists of a long, coiled, unbranched or branched chain of a glucose molecule. It is broken down in the body into glucose molecule and it used by cell or tissue to produce energy
Term
glycogen
Definition

animal starch

its structure is similar to starch but it is more exensively branched. It is stored in the liver and broken down to glucose molecule. Glucose molecule are released into blood and transport to cell and tissue where it is used to produced energy.

Term
Lipid
Definition

-It functions in long term energy storage and some form major part are plasma membrane which surround the cells, some are hormone, and some protect, support and insulate organs ans tissue.

-They composed in C,H,O.They have less oxygen in proportion to carbon and hydrog than they found in carbohydrates

 There are three groups: Neutral fats, Phospholipid, Steroids

Term
Neutral fats
Definition

they composed of glycerol and fatty acids. The glycerol molecules consist a chain of three carbon atoms. Bonded to each C atom along the same side is hydroxyle group(OH).The remaining bond of the C atom are filled with H atoms

 

Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group (COOH) at the end

There are two forms of fatty acids: saturated fatty acid, and unsaturated fatty acid

Term
Triglyceride
Definition
The glycerol and three fatty acids bonded together
Term
Saturated fatty acid
Definition
consist the maximum number possible of hydrogen (H) bond to the Carbon (C) and there are no double covalent bond between Carbon atom. They are animal fat( bacon grease, butter, lard) and are usually solid at room temperature
Term
Unsaturated fatty acid
Definition

they contain one or more double covalent bond between Carbon (C) atom and the second bond take up the place of H atom. They are plants oil such as vegetable oil, corn oil, peanut oil and olive oil. and are usually liquid at room temperature

 

Term
Phospholipids
Definition

are important component of plasma membrane of cells. Their structure is similar to neutral fat except one of the fatty acid is replaced by phosphate group (PO4) which is negatively charged. Attached to phosphate group there is usually a molecule which contain nitrogen (N)

 

they contain two regions

Polar head:consist of glycerol molecule and the phosphate group. It is hydrophilic " water loving" the orients itself toward water

Non polar tail: consist of two fatty acids and is hydrophobic"water fearing" the orient away from water

Term
steroids
Definition
are structurally different to neutral fat and phospholipids. They consist of four fused ring of carbon atom. The first three ring contain 6 carbon, and the fourth ring contain five carbons. The style of it differ in lenght and structure of the side chain or functional group attached to the rings. common include cholesterol, vitamin D, male and female sex hormones, bile salt
Term
Proteins
Definition
composed of C,H,O,N and sometime sulfur (S)
Term
Amino acids
Definition

protein made up of structural unit called___

 

composed of a carbon atom covalent bonded to four different atoms 1. hydrogen atom2.two functional group:amino and carboxyl 3. R or varible group.

 

The chemical and physical properties of R or varible group determine characteristic of ____. there are 20 _____and they only differ in R group

Term
Bond formed between amino acid and functional group involved
Definition
Amino group of one amino acid is bonded to carboxyle group of another amino acid by dehydration synthesis
Term
Protein structure( organization)
Definition

There are four levels structure

 

  1. Primary structure
  2. Secondary structure
  3. Tertiary structure
  4. Quaternary structure
Term
Primary structure
Definition
the simplest structure and it consist a chain of amino acids in a specific sequence
Term
Secondary structure
Definition

 

a chain of amino acids twists, coils, or fold and the structure is held together by hyrogen bonds between peptide bond.It found in fibrous proteins.

There are two type

Alpha helix- a chain of amino acid twist coiled and the tructure is held toghether by hydrogen bond between every fourth peptide bone

Beta pleated sheet- a chain of amino acid fold back and fouth in a zig zag pattern forming parallel row

 

 

 

 

Term
Tertiary structure
Definition

secondary structure twist and coil, or fold to form a ball shape mass that called globular protein. The structure is held together by hydrogen, covalent, ionic bonds between the R group

 

Most protein in the human body is globular protein

Term
Quaternary structure
Definition
the most complex structrure and very few protein reach this level. It consists of two or more, unlike or like, polypeptide chain helt together by hydrogen bond
Term
Funtion of protein
Definition

There are seven major funtions of protein

Structural support: keratin, collagen, elastin

Storage:Albumin

Transport of other substance: Hemoglobin

Coordination of bodily activity:hormone

Movement: actin and myosine

Defense:antibodies

Aid in chemical reation: Enzyme

Term
Enzyme
Definition

are protein that act as biological catalysts and speed up to rate of chemical reaction without being changed by the reaction and used up in the reaction.

 

Example: sucrase, lipase, and hydrolase

Term
Energy of activation
Definition

Before the reaction can occur, enery must be absorbed by the reactant in order to break chemical bonds. The energy refer as ______

 

 

 

Enzyme funtion in lowering energy of activation

 

Term
Substrate
Definition

Substance on which the enzyme act known as _____

 

 

 

 

The substrate bond to a specific region on the enzyme known as active site

Term
Induced fit
Definition
the process when a substrate bond, active site slight change shape to fit snugly around the substrate is referrer______
Term
Cofactor
Definition

-Some enzyme require helper molecule

-aid in bonding a with substrate

 

there are two type

Inoranic molecule and are usually metal ion

Organin molecule specifically called coenzymes

Term
Coenzymes
Definition

organic molecule specifically called ___

There are usually B complex vitamine or their derivertive

 

Term
The factor that affect the enzyme activity
Definition
Concentration of enzyme, concentration of substatr, salt concentration, temperature, pH, and the presence and absence inhibitor and activator
Term
Nucleic acid
Definition

largest and most complex organic molecule. It composed of C, H,O, N and phosphorus P.

The structure unit of it is nucleotide

Term
Nucleotide
Definition

consist three parts

  1. Five-carbon and pentose sugar
  2. Phosphate group
  3. Nitrogenous base

There are two groups of nitrogenous base

Purine- large double ring structure

Pyrimidine :small single ring structure

 

Term

There are two major type of nucleic acid

 

Definition

Deoxyribonucleic acid( DNA)

Ribsonucleic acid (RNA)

Term

Deoxyribonucleic acid

(DNA)

 

Definition

it found in the chromosomes in the nucleus of cells.It contain all the instructions for making  all the protein needed by a cell and for regulating all cell's activities and processes

The nucleotide of DNA consist

Deoxyribose sugar

Phosphate group

One of the four nitrogenous base


DNA consist od two chains of nucleotide twisted and coiled  around each other to form double helix.

Term

Ribonuclei acid

(RNA)

 

Definition

it is formed from DNA in the nucleus and leave the nucleus and enter the cytoplasm.

 

There are three type messenger RNA(mRNA)transfer RNA (tRNA) ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

The nucleotide of RNA consist

Ribose sugar, phosphate group, and one of the four nitrogeneous bases

 

RNA consist a single strand of nucleotides which may fold back on itself and form loops

Term

Adenosine triphosphate

ATP

Definition

Consists of a single nucleotide similar to those found in DNA and RNA. It is composed of ribose sugar, adenine, and a chain of three phosphate group

 

is the major energy source for a cell and its activities and processes

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