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Chapter 22
Respiratory System
206
Anatomy
Undergraduate 2
03/08/2012

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Term
What is the major function of the respiratory system?
Definition
To supply the body with oxygen and dispose of carbon dioxide.
Term
Four processes of respiration
Definition
Pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, transport, internal respiration
Term
Pulmonary Ventilation
Definition
moving air into and out of the lungs
Term
External respiration
Definition
gas exchange between the lungs and the blood
Term
Transport
Definition
transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and tissues
Term
Internal respiration
Definition
gas exchange between systemic blood vessels and tissues
Term
What are the two zones of the respiratory system?
Definition
Conducting and respiratory zones
Term
Conducting zone
Definition
Conduits for air to reach the sites of gas exchange. Includes nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea
Term
Respiratory zone
Definition
Site of gas exchange, consists of bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli
Term
Respiratory Muscles
Definition
diaphrgam and other muscles that promote ventilation. Controlled by Phrenic nerve
Term
Function of the Nose
Definition
Providing an air way for respiration. Moistening and warming the air. Filtering inspired air and cleaning it of foregin matter
Term
The external nose is composed of what?
Definition
Root, bridge, dorsum nasi, apex, nares, alea cartilages (See slide 7)
Term
Philtrum
Definition
a shallow vertical groove inferior to the apex (See slide 7)
Term
What are the external nares?
Definition
External nostrils (see slide 7)
Term
What are teh external nostrils bound by?
Definition
The alae cartilage (See slide 7)
Term
Where does the nasal cavity lie?
Definition
In and posterior to the external nose
Term
WHat is the nasal cavity divided by?
Definition
Midline nasal septum
Term
What does the nasal cavity open posteriorly into?
Definition
The nasal pharynx via internal nares
Term
What forms the roof of the of the nasal cavity?
Definition
Ethmoid and sphenoid bones
Term
What is the floor of the nasal cavity formed by?
Definition
The roof of hard and soft palate
Term
Role of the nasal cavity
Definition
Place of air entry into the body..
Term
What is the nasal cavity lined with?
Definition
Sweat glands and sabaceous glands and vibrissae
Term
What is the role of sweat glands and sabaceous glands in the nasal cavity?
Definition
Beginning moistening the air
Term
What is the role of the vibrissae in the nasal cavity?
Definition
Hairs that filter coarse particles from inspired air
Term
What is the role of the respiratory mucosa?
Definition
Lines the balance of the nasal cavity. Mucous glands secrete mucus, serous glands secrete lysozyme and defensins
Term
What is the role of mucus?
Definition
traps dust, bacteria
Term
What is the role of lysozyme and defensins?
Definition
To help destroy bacteria
Term
How is inspired air warmed and moistened within the nasal cavity?
Definition
By high water content in the nasal cavity, warmed by capillaries
Term
What is the role of ciliated mucosal cells remove contaminated mucus?
Definition
remove contaminated mucus
Term
What is the role of the conchae and nasal mucosa during inhalation?
Definition
Filter, heat, and moisten air
Term
WHat is the role of the conchae and nasal mucosa during exhalation?
Definition
Reclaim heat and moisture. Minimize heat and moisture loss
Term
What is the pharynx
Definition
a funnel shaped tube of skeletal muscle
Term
What does the pharynx connect to superiorly?
Definition
nasal cavity and mouth superiorly
Term
What does the pharynx connect to inferiorly?
Definition
Larynx and esophagus
Term
From where to where does the pharynx extend?
Definition
Base of the skull to the level of the sixth cervical vertebra
Term
Where does teh oropharyx extend from?
Definition
inferiorly from the level of the soft palate to the epiglottis
Term
What is the role of the oropharynx?
Definition
A common passageway for food and air
Term
Where do the palatine tonsils lie?
Definition
In the lateral wall of the fauces
Term
What are the three regions of the pharynx?
Definition
Nasopharynx, Oropharynx, Laryngopharynx
Term
Where are the lingual tonsils located?
Definition
Covers the base of the tongue
Term
What is the role of the laryngopharynx?
Definition
Serves as a common passage way for food and air.
Term
Where is the nasopharynx located?
Definition
Lies posterior to the nasal cavity, superior to the level of the soft palate
Term
What passes through the nasopharynx?
Definition
Strictly air
Term
What happens to the nasopharynx during swallowing?
Definition
Closes to prevent food from entering
Term
What is the role of the pharyngeal tonsils or adenoids?
Definition
traps and destroys pathogens
Term
Where does the laryngopharynx lie?
Definition
posterior to the upright epiglottis
Term
Where does the laryngopharynx extend to?
Definition
Term
At what part of the pharynx do the respiratory and digestive pathways diverge?
Definition
Laryngopharnx
Term
What is another name for the larynx?
Definition
Voice box
Term
What does the larynx attach to?
Definition
The hyoid bone and opens into the laryngopharynx superiorly
Term
What is the larynx continuous with?
Definition
Trachea posteriorly
Term
Size of the larynx?
Definition
Approx 2 inches long
Term
What does the structures of the larynx do?
Definition
Keep trachea constantly open
Term
What are the three functions of the larynx?
Definition
To provide a patent (open) airway. To act as a switching mechanism to route air and food into the proper channels. To function in voice production
Term
What are the singlets of the larynx?
Definition
Epiglottis, Thyroid Cartilage, Cricoid Cartilage
Term
Anatomy of the thyroid cartilage
Definition
Shield-shaped anterosuperior cartilage with a midline laryngeal prominence (adam's apple)
Term
What is the shape of the cricoid cartilage?
Definition
Signet ring-shaped anterioinferior cartilage
Term
What are the three cartilage pairs of the larynx?
Definition
Arytenoid, cuneiform, and corniculate
Term
What do the vocal ligaments attach?
Definition
The arytenoid cartilages to the thyroid cartilages
Term
What are the vocal ligaments composed of?
Definition
elastic fibers that form mucosal folds called true vocal cords
Term
What is the medial opening between the vocal ligaments?
Definition
Glottis
Term
What happens when the vocal ligaments vibrate?
Definition
Produce sound as air rushes up from the lungs
Term
Where are the false vocal cords?
Definition
Mucosal folds superior to the true vocal cords.
Term
What role do the false vocal cords have in sound production?
Definition
No part
Term
When is the larynx closed?
Definition
During coughing, sneezing, and Valsalva's maneuver
Term
What is the Valsalva's Maneuver?
Definition
Air is temporarily held in the lower respiratory tract by closing the glottis. Causes intra-abdominal pressure to rise when abdominal muscles contract. Acts as a plint to stabilize the trunk when lifting heavy loads
Term
What is the epiglottis?
Definition
Elastic cartilage that covers the laryngeal inlet during the swallowing. 9th set of cartilage in the larynx
Term
What is the trachea?
Definition
Flexible and mobile tube extending from the larynx into the mediastinum to the conducting zone and the bronchi
Term
What are the three layers of the trachea?
Definition
Mucosa, Submucosa, Adventitia
Term
Trachea - Mucosa
Definition
made up of goblet cells and ciliated helium
Term
Trachea - Submucosa
Definition
connective tissue deep to the mucosa
Term
Trachea - Adventitia
Definition
outermost layer made of C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
Term
What marks the end of the trachea and the beginning of the bronchi?
Definition
Carina of the last tracheal cartilage
Term
How many primary bronchi are there?
Definition
Two. 1 per lung
Term
How many secondary bronchi are there?
Definition
5. 1 per lobe.
Term
What are the two types of lung tissue?
Definition
Supportive and tissue for respiration
Term
What happens with the air reaches the bronchi?
Definition
warm and cleansed of impurities and saturated with water vapor
Term
How much branching do the air passages go under?
Definition
23 orders. Makes up the Bronchial tree
Term
If bronchi are less than 1 mm are referred to as?
Definition
Bronchioles
Term
Structure of bronchioles
Definition
Lack cartilage support and mucus-producing cells
Term
How large are the terminal bronchioles?
Definition
Less than .5 mm in diameter
Term
What is the respiratory zone defined by?
Definition
Tee presence of alveoli
Term
Where does the respiratory zone begin?
Definition
begin at terminal bronchioles and feed into respiratory bronchioles
Term
What do the respiratory bronchioles lead to?
Definition
The alveolar ducts
Term
What do the alveolar ducts lead to?
Definition
Terminal clusters of alveolar sacs composed of alveoli
Term
What does the respiratory zone consist of?
Definition
Approx 300 million alveoli. Account for most of the lung's volume. Provide tremendous surface area for gas exchange
Term
What is the respiratory membrane composed of?
Definition
Alveolar and capillary walls and their fused basal laminas.
Term
What is the role of the alveolar walls?
Definition
Permit gas exchange by simple diffusion.
Term
What are the alveoli surrounded by?
Definition
Fine elastic fibers
Term
What are the roles of the open pores of the alveoli?
Definition
Connect adjacent alveoli and allow air pressure throughout the lung to be equalized
Term
What do the alveoli do to prevent rupturing?
Definition
expand at the same time
Term
What type of cells are scattered around the alveoli?
Definition
Type II cells
Term
What are the shape of the type II cells?
Definition
cuboidal
Term
What do the Type II cells secrete?
Definition
Surfactant
Term
What is the role of surfactant in alveoli?
Definition
Coats the gas exposed surfaces which keeps them expansive and from drying out
Term
What is the role of the root of the lungs?
Definition
Site of vascular and bronchial attachments
Term
What are the costal surfaces which come in contact with the ribs?
Definition
Anterior, lateral, and posterior surfaces
Term
What is the apex of the lung?
Definition
The narrow superior tip
Term
What is the base of the lung?
Definition
Inferior surface that rests on the diaphragm
Term
What is the hilus?
Definition
Indentation that contains pulmonary and systemic blood vessels
Term
Where is the root located?
Definition
At the hilus
Term
What are the lobes of the right lung?
Definition
Superior, Median, Inferior
Term
What are the lobes of the left lung?
Definition
Superior, Inferior
Term
What is the cardiac notch?
Definition
cavity that accommodates the heart
Term
What seperates the lobes of the left lung?
Definition
Oblique fissure (groove, furrow)
Term
What are the lobes of the right lung separated by?
Definition
The oblique and horizontal fissures
Term
What is the mediastinum?
Definition
Medial portion of the thoracic cavity
Term
What two circulations are the lungs perfused by?
Definition
Pulmonary and bronchial
Term
What is the role of the pulmonary arteries?
Definition
carry blood from the heart to be oxygenated. Branch profusely, along with bronchi. Ultimately feed into the pulmonary capillary network surrounding the alveoli
Term
What is the role of the pulmonary veins?
Definition
carry oxygenated blood from respiratory zones to the heart
Term
What is the role of the bronchial arteries?
Definition
provided systemic blood to the lung tissue. Arise from aorta and enters the lungs at the hilus. Suplly all lung tissue except the alveoli
Term
What happens with the bronchial and pulmonary veins?
Definition
Anastomose (join)
Term
Which carry more venous blood back to the heart, pulmonary or bronchial veins?
Definition
Pulmonary veins
Term
What is the pleurae?
Definition
Thin, double-layered serosa
Term
What does the parietal pleura cover?
Definition
The thoracic wall and superior face of the diaphragm. Continues around the heart adn between the lungs
Term
What are the two pleura of the respiratory system?
Definition
Parietal and Visceral/Pulmonary
Term
What does the visceral pleura cover?
Definition
The external lung surface, divides the thoracic cavity into three chambers
Term
What are the three cavities the visceral pleura divided the thoracic cavity into?
Definition
The central mediastinum and the two lateral compartments, each containing a lung
Term
What do the pleura produce?
Definition
Fluid which fills teh cavity between the lungs and the thoracic walls
Term
What is the function of the pleural fluid?
Definition
Allows lungs to glide over thoracic walls during breathing
Term
What are the two phases of breathing/pulmonary ventilation?
Definition
Inspiration, Expiration
Term
What is inspiration?
Definition
air flows into the lungs
Term
What is expiration?
Definition
gases exit the lungs
Term
Which of the two breathing phases requires ATP?
Definition
Inspiration
Term
What is atmospheric pressure?
Definition
760 mmHg
Term
What happens when the negative respiratory pressure is less than atmospheric pressure?
Definition
Air goes in
Term
What happens when positive respiratory pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure?
Definition
Air goes out
Term
What is intrapulmonary pressure?
Definition
Pressure within the alveoli. Generally 760mmHg. Increases and decreases with change in thoracic architecture
Term
What is intrapleural pressure?
Definition
Pressure within the pleural cavity. Generally 756mmHg. Always less than pulmonary pressure
Term
What happens between intrapulmonary pressure and intrapleural pressure through out the phases of breathing?
Definition
Fluctuate
Term
Intrapulmonary pressure always eventually ___?____ itself with atmospheric pressure
Definition
Equalizes
Term
Intrapleural pressure is always ____?_____ than intrapulmonary pressure and atmospheric pressure
Definition
less
Term
What causes lung collapse?
Definition
equalization of intrapleural pressure with the intrapulmonary pressure
Term
What is the role of transpulmonary pressure?
Definition
keeps the airways open
Term
What is transpulmonary pressure?
Definition
difference between the intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressure
Term
Pulmonary ventilation as a mechanical process
Definition
Depends on volume changes in the thoracic cavity
Term
Change in _____ leads to ______ changes lead to ______ which lead to the flow of gases to ________ pressure
Definition
architecture, volume, pressure, equalize
Term
Active process of pulmonary ventilation
Definition
inspiration
Term
Passive process of pulmonary ventilation
Definition
expiration
Term
Inspiration: Step 1
Definition
Brain signal
Term
Inspiration: Step 2
Definition
Inspiratory muscles contract (diaphragm descends, rib cages rises)
Term
Inspiration: Step 3
Definition
Thoracic cavity volume increases
Term
Inspiration: Step 4
Definition
Lungs stretched; intrapulmonary volume increases
Term
Inspiration: Step 5
Definition
Intrapulmonary pressure drops by -1 mmHg
Term
Inspiration: Step 6
Definition
Air (gases) flow into the lungs down its pressure gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is 0 (Equal to atmospheric pressure)
Term
Expiration: Step 1
Definition
Brain stops signal
Term
Expiration: Step 2
Definition
INspiratory muscles relax (diaphragm rises; rib cage decsends due to recoil of costal cartilages)
Term
Expiration: Step 3
Definition
Elastic lungs recoil passively; intrapulmonary volume decrease
Term
Expiration: Step 5
Definition
Intrapulmonary pressures rises by +1mmHg
Term
Expiration: Step 6
Definition
AIr (gases) flows out of lungs down its pressure gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is 0
Term
Approximately how much air do we take in? How long does it take?
Definition
.5 liter. 2 seconds
Term
Approximately how much air do we expire? How long does it take?
Definition
.5 liter. 2 seconds
Term
What is lung compliance?
Definition
The ease with which lungs can be expanded. Specifically, the measure of the change in lung volume that occurs with a given change in transpulmonary pressure
Term
What are the two factors that determine lung compliance?
Definition
Distensibility of the lung tissue and surrounding thoracic cage. Surface tension of the alveoli
Term
What are the factors that diminish lung compliance?
Definition
Scar tissue or fibrosis that reduces the natural resilience of the lungs. Blockage of the smaller respiratory passages with mucus or fluid. Reduced production of surfactant. Decreased flexibility of the thoracic cage or its decreased ability to expand.
Term
What is tidal volume?
Definition
air that moves into and out of the lungs with each breath (approx 500 mL)
Term
What is residual volume?
Definition
air left (about 1200 mL) in the lungs after strenuous expiration
Term
What is inspiratory capacity?
Definition
total amount of air that can be inspired after a tidal expiration (standard exhalation, maximum forced inspiration)
Term
Functional residual capacity
Definition
amount of air remaining in the lungs after a tidal expiration (standard exhalation)
Term
Vital capacity
Definition
How much air can be inspired/expired normally or forcibly
Term
Total lung capacity
Definition
sum of all long volumes (approx 6000 ml in males)
Term
What is the anatomical dead space?
Definition
volume of the conducting respiratory passages (150 mL)
Term
Alveolar dead space
Definition
alveoli that cease to act in gas exchange due to collapse or obstruction
Term
Total dead space
Definition
sum of alveolar and anatomical dad spaces
Term
What is a spirometer?
Definition
an instrument consisting of a hollow bell inverted over water, used to evaluate respiratory function
Term
What can spiromtery distinguish between?
Definition
Obstructive pulmonary disease, restrictive disorders
Term
Obstructive pulmonary disease
Definition
increased airway resistance
Term
sorders
Definition
reduction in total lung capacity from structural or functional lung changes
Term
What is Total ventilation a measure of?
Definition
total amount of gas flow into or out of the respiratory tract in one minute
Term
What does forced vital capacity measure?
Definition
gas forcibly expelled after taking a deep breath
Term
What does forced expiratory volume measure?
Definition
the amount of gas expelled during specific time intervals of teh forced vital capacity
Term
What can the increases in total lung capacity, functional residual capacity, and residual volume indicate?
Definition
An obstructive disease
Term
Reduction in vital capacity, total lung capacity, functional residual capacity, and residual volume can indicate what?
Definition
A restrictive disease
Term
What are the two main elements of atmospheric gas?
Definition
oxygen - 21%, nitrogen 78%
Term
What is the composition of alveolar gas?
Definition
approx 88% nitrogen and oxygen, 12% carbon dioxide and water vapor
Term
What do the difference between the composition of alveolar gas and atmospheric gas result from?
Definition
Gas exchanges in the lungs - oxygen diffuses from the alveoli and CO2 diffuses into the alveoli. Humidification of air by conducting passages. The mixing of alveolar gas that occurs with each breath
Term
What are the factors that influence the movement of oxygen and CO2 across the respiratory membrane?
Definition
Partial pressure gradients and gas solubilities. Matching of alveolar ventilation and pulmonary blood perfusion. Structural charactreristics of the respiratory membrane
Term
What is total pressure?
Definition
equal to the sums of all the partial pressures of all the gases
Term
What is partial pressure
Definition
the percentage of the gas multiplied by the total air pressure
Term
What is the relationship between the partial pressure of O2 in the air, lungs, blood, and tissue?
Definition
pO2 air > pO2 lungs > pO2 blood > pO2 tissue
Term
What is the relationship between the partial pressure of CO2 in the air, lungs, blood, and tissue?
Definition
pCO2 Air < pCO2 Lungs < pCO2 blood < pCO2 tissue
Term
What does the pressure gradient allow for in regards to blood speed?
Definition
Blood can move 3x as quickly and still be adequately oxygenated
Term
How long does it take for blood to be adequately oxygenated?
Definition
.25 seconds
Term
Which is more soluble in plasma? O2 or CO2?
Definition
CO2 by about 20x
Term
Ventilation
Definition
the amount of gas reaching the alveoli
Term
perfusion
Definition
the blood flow reaching the alveoli
Term
For efficient gas exchange ventilation and perfusion must be ________ _________
Definition
tightly regulated
Term
Why do you breathe faster when active?
Definition
To move more CO2 out of the body
Term
What are the three ways CO2 is transported in the blood?
Definition
Dissolved in plasma, chemically bound to hemoglobin, bicarbonate ion in plasma
Term
What percentage of CO2 is dissolved in plasma?
Definition
7-10%
Term
What percentage of CO2 is chemically bound to hemoglobin?
Definition
20% in RBC's as carbaminohemoglobin
Term
How is carbaminohemoglobin transported?
Definition
Binds to the outside of hemoglobin
Term
What percentage of CO2 is carried as bicarbonate ion in plasma?
Definition
70% as HCO3-
Term
CO2 (from tissue) diffuses into RBCs and combines with water to form what?
Definition
Carbonic acid, H2CO3
Term
What catalyzes the reaction between CO2 and H2O?
Definition
carbonic anhydrase
Term
How is the bicarbonate ion formed from carbonic acid?
Definition
A hydrogen ion disassociates from H2CO3
Term
How does bicarbonate ion revert back to CO2 when the RBC nears the lung?
Definition
A hydrogen ion is added to the bicarbonate ion forming H2CO3. Carbonic anhydrase catalyzes the reaction to form CO2 and H2O
Term
After bicarbonate ion is formed what does it associate with?
Definition
Plasma
Term
What happens to the hydrogen ion after disassociating from carbonic acid?
Definition
Binds to hemoglobin when O2 is not present
Term
What happens as a result of the bicarbonate ion leaving the RBC and joining the plasma?
Definition
A Chloride ion moves into the RBC
Term
As the bicarbonate ion leaves the plasma and enters the red blood cell what leaves the RBC as a result?
Definition
A chloride ion
Term
What is the Haldane effect?
Definition
Presence of O2 drives the removal of CO2 from tissue and the body
Term
Where is the inspiratory center located?
Definition
near the root of nerve IX (glossopharyngeal)
Term
What is the role of the inspiratory center?
Definition
integrates information from stretch and chemo receptors and transfers to ventral respiratory group
Term
What is the role of the ventral respiratory group?
Definition
Rhythm generating center.
Term
What is the role of the pons center?
Definition
fine tunes inspirations and expirations transitions. continuously inihibits the inspiration center
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