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| the "stuff" of the universe, anything that occupies space and has mass (weight).exists in solid, liquid, and gaseous states. may be changed both physically and chemically with some exceptions it can be seen, smeeled, felt. chemistry studies the nature of matter-how they are put together and interact. |
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| have definite shape and volume. ex. bones and teeth |
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| definite volume, conform to the shpe of their container. ex. blood |
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| neither a definite shape nor a definite volume. ex. the air we breath |
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| physically and chemically |
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| dont alter the basic nature of a substance ex. ice melting, cutting foods into smaller pieces |
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| do alter the compositiong of the substance, often substantially. ex. digesting food |
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| the ability to do work or to put natter into motion. when energy is actually doing work (moving objects)it is referred to as kinetic. when it is inctuve it is referred to as potential.living things need to grow and function.massless and does not take up space. can only be measured by its effects on matter. |
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| active energy. when something is actually doign work |
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| inactive or stored energy |
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| Chemical energy, Electrical energy, mechanical energy, radiant energy |
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| stores n the bonds of chemical substances, when the bonds are broken, the potential energy stored is unleashed and becomes the kinetic energy. all body activities are "run" by the chemical energy harvested fro the foods we eat |
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| results from the movement of charged particles. generated when charged particles (ions_ move across the cell membranes |
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| directly involved in the moving of matter. |
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| travels in waves, that is, energy of the electromagnetic spectrun, which includes X rays and infrared, visible light, radio, and ultraviolet waves. |
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| stimulates the retinas of your eyes, important in vision |
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| stimulates our bodies to make vitamin D |
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| adnosine triphospjate. food is trapped in the bonds of these high energy chemicals. ATP's energy may ultimately be transformed into the elctric energy of a nerve impulse or mechanical energy of a shrtenng muscle |
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| What makes us warm blooded ? |
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| the heat that is liberates in energy conversions in our body |
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| all matter is composed of a limited number of elements. unique substances that cannot be broken down in simpler substances by ordinary chemical methods. ex. oxygen, gold, copper, iron. the atomic symbol represents each by the first two letters of the elements name. |
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| how many elements are there? |
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| 112 known with certainty, 113-116 are alleged. 92 occur naturally, the rest are produced artificially in accelerator devices. |
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| What elements make up the body |
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| 96% carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, nd then traces of others are present |
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| odd shaped checkerboard that lists all the elements. |
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| the building block of an element, the smallest particle that still retains its special properties. the atom of each element differ from those of all other elements (because all elements are unique). the word atom comes from the greek word meaning "incapable of being divided" but we now know that atoms are just clusters of even smaller subatomic particles but then the atom loses the unique properties of its element |
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| each element is designated by a one or two letter by this chemical shorthand. in most caes the atomic symbol is the first (or firt two) letters of the elements name. sometimes takenfromt he latin name |
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| the elements are composed of different numbers and proportions of three basical subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. they differ in their mass, electrical charge, and location within the atom. |
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| have a positive charge, heavy (1 atomic mass unit, or 1 amu), p+. all protons are alike |
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| uncharged, or neutral. heavy (1 atomic mass unit, or 1amu), n^0. all neutrons are alike |
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| tiny, bear a negative charge equal in strength to the pocitibe charge of the protons, but their mass is so small that it is usually designated as 0 amu, e-. all electrons are alike |
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| of a particle is the emasure of tis ability to attract or repel other charges particles. particles with the same type of charge (+ to + or - to -) repel eachother, but particles (+ to -) attact. neutral particles ar neither attracted no repelled by charges particles. |
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| normally equal. atoms that have gained of ost electrons are called ions |
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| of an atom portrays the atom as a miniature solar system. in which the protons and neutrons are clustered at the center of the atom in the atomic nucleus. the tiny electrons orbit around the nucleus in fixed generally circular orbits, like planets around the sun, we can never determine the exact location of an electron at a particular time because they jump around following unknown paths |
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| protons and nuetrons. the nucleus contains all the heavy particles fo it is fantastically dense and positively charged. the electrons orbit around it |
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| regions around the nucleus in which a given electron or electron pair is LIKELY to be found most of the time. instead of speaking of specific orbits chemist talk of orbitals. |
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| more modern model of atomic structure. prooved to be more useful in predicting the chemical behavior of atoms. predicts the general location of electrons outside the nucleus as a haze of negative charfe referred to as the electron cloud |
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| in the orbital model, it is the haze outside the nucleus, egatively charged regioun. regions were electrons are most likely to be found it shaded more densely, rather than by orbital lines |
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| electrons role in bonding |
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Definition
| electrons have the run of nearly the entire volume of the atom ad determine its chemical behavior, (its ability to bond wit other atoms) |
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| siplest atom, one proton and one electron and no neutrons |
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| what determined the unique properties of elements? |
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| the different umers of protons, neutrons and electrons. all known atoms could be decribed by adding one proton and oe electron at each step. the number of neutrons s not as easy to pin down. light atoms tend to have equal numbers of protons and neutrons, whereas n larger atoms neutrons outnumber protons. To identify an element is its atomic number, mass number, and atomic weight. |
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| each element has one. equal to the number of protons its atoms contain. the atomic number thus is unique. protons=electrons, so it indirectly also tells us the number of electrons the atom contains |
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Definition
| sum of the protons and the nuetrons contained in the nucleus (mass of the electrons is small that it is ignored). is writen as a superscript to the left of the atomic symbol |
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| it is not equal to the atomic mass because there isnt just one atom representing each element.general rule: the atomic wight of any element is approx. equal to the mass number of its most abundant isotope |
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| varieties in atoms of almost all elements exhibit two or more structural variations. isotopes have the same number of protons and electrons bt they vary in the number of neutrons they contain. so isotopes of an element have the same atomic number but have different atomic masses. because isotopes have the same number of electrons their chemical properties are exactly the same. |
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| heavier isotopes of certain atoms are unstable and tend to decompose to become more stable. the reason for this is complex, apparently because the "glue" that holds the atomic nuclei together is weaker int eh heavier isotopes. used in minute amounts to tag biological molecules so that they can be followed, or traced, throught the body and are valuabe tools for medical diagnosis and treatment (ex. PET scans,) |
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| process of spontaneous atomic decay , can be compared to a tiny explosion. radioactive decay involve the ejectrion of particals (alpha or beta particles) or electromagnetic energy (gamma rays) from the atoms nucleus and are damaging to living cells |
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| most powerful penetrating power |
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| does not damage the atos in its path directly, instead it sends electrons flying all alongs its path, it is these electrons that do the damage |
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| formed when two or more atoms combine chemically. when two or more atoms of that same element bond toegtehr a molecule of that element is produced. (hydrogen bonded to hydrogen =hydrogen gas) |
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| the atoms taking part in the reaction are indicated by ther atomic symbols, and the compostition fo the product is indicated by a molecular formular that shows its atomic makeup |
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| shows the the chemical reaction |
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| the molecule formed when two or more different atoms bind together. have properties different from those of the atoms making them up, would be basically impossible to determine the atoms making up a compound without analyzing it chemically |
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| occue whenever atoms combine with or dissociate from other atoms. when atoms unite chemically, chemical bonds are formed |
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| not actualy physical structure, it is an energy that involves interactions between the electrons of the reacting atoms. |
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| aka. energy levels. fixed regions of space around the nucleus that electrons occupy. maximum known number in any atom is 7. numbered 1 to 7 from the nucleus outward. the electrons more closer to the nucleus are more attracted to its positive carge, and the electrons further away are less securely held so they are more likely to interat with other atoms. Shell one- 2 electrons. shell two- 8 electrons, shell three- 18 electrons (gets more and more) |
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Definition
| only electrons important when considering bonding behavior are those in this outermost shell, its electrons determine the chemical behavior of the atom. when it has 8 electrons the atom is completely stable and is chemically inactive, when it has less than 8 the atom will tend to gain loose or share electrons to become stable (forming a chemical bond) |
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| the key to chemical reactivity, atoms interact in such a way that they will have 8 electrons in their valence shell except shell one because it is stable with 2 electrons. atom's outermost electron shell must overlap for their electrons to interact |
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Definition
| form when electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another. atoms are lectrically neutral but when they gain or lose electrons during bonding, their positive and negative charges are no longer balanced and charged particles called ions result |
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Definition
| result when atoms (which are electrically neutral) gain or lose electrons during bonding, their positive and negative charges are no longer balanced and charged particles called ions result. when an atom gains an electron it gets a net negative charge because it has more electrons that protons (anion). when an atom loses an electron it becomes a positively charged ion (cation). an ionic bond is formed. |
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| ionic compounds. or many metal elements are found in the body, most plentiful cntaining calcium and phosphorus, found chiefly in bones and teeth. when dissolved in body fluids they seperate into their ions (dissociating) is easy because the ions have already been formed . the polar water molecules pull the ions apart, by orienting themselves (neg side) towards towards the anions. in their ionic form and in combo with other elements are vital to body functioning.they are all electrolytes |
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Definition
| electron sharing so that each atom is able to fill its valence shell at least part of the time. electrons do not have to be completely lost of gained for atoms to become stable. the shared electron pair orbits the wole molecule and satisfied the stability needs of both atoms. |
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Definition
| molecules in which atoms share electrons, their bonds are covalent bonds |
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Term
covakebtly bonded molecules |
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Definition
| in covalent bonds when the electrons have been shared equally. but electrons are not always shared equally. covalent bonds always form definite 3-D shapes (plays a major role in what other molecules it can interat with) |
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Definition
| two charged poled, one pole is slightly more chrged than the other. orient themselve toward other polar molecules or charged particles, play an important role in chemical reactions that occie in body cells. becayuse body tissues are 60 to 80% water (a polar molecule) |
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| extremely weak bonds formd when a hydrogen atom bound to one electron hungry atom, and the atom forms a "bridge" between them. common between water molecules and is reflected inw aters surface tension which causes it to "ball up" (to form pheres) when it sits on a surface and allos some insects to walk on water. important INTRAMOLECULAR BONDS, help to bond different parts f the same molecule tgether into a special 3-D shape. also help to maintain the structure of protein molecules and body building materials |
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Definition
| help to bond different parts f the SAME molecule tgether into a special 3-D shape. fragile bonds help to maintain the structure of protein molecules |
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| Patterns of chemical reactions |
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Definition
| chemican rxns make of break bonds btwn atoms but the number of atoms is the same, most chemical rxns have one of the 3 most recognizable patterns: synthesis, decomposition, exchange |
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Definition
occur when two or more atoms or molecules combing to form a larger more complec molecule. A+B -> AB always involve bond formation, because energy must be absorbed to make bonds. unlie all anaboic (constructive) activities that occie in body cells. imp for growth anf repair of worn out or damanged tissures |
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Definition
| occur when a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules or ions. AB-> A+B. they are synthesis reactions in reverse. bons are always broken and the product of these rxns is smaller and simpler than the original molecules. as bonds are broken chemical energy is released. underlie all catabolic destructive processes that occue in body cells (molecule-degrading rxns) ex. digestion of foods into building blocks |
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involve both synthesis and decomposition reactions: bonds are both made and broken. a switch is made btwn molecule parts and different molecules are made. AB+C--> AC+ B and AB+ CD --> AD+CB occurs when ATP reacts with glucse and transfers its end of phosphate group to glucose forming glucose phoshate while ATP becomes ADP |
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Definition
| organic, or inorganic compounds depending on the presence or absence of carbon. they are both equally inmportant for life |
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Definition
| lack carbon and tend to be small, simple colecules. ex. water, salts, and many acids and bases |
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| are carbon- containing compounds. ex. carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acics. fairly large covalently bonded molecules |
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| inorganic, most abundant, 2/3 of the body weight. properties that make it so vital are: high heat capacity, polar/ solvent properties, chemical reactivity, cushioning |
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| property of water that makes it so vital. it absorbs and releases large amounts of heat before it temperature changes appreciably (preventing sudden changes in body temperature) |
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| polarity/ solvent properties |
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Definition
| because of water's polarity if is a great solvent, also called the "universal solvent" |
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| liquid of gas in which smaller amounts of other substances call solutes can be dissolved or suspended |
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| small amounts can be dissolved or suspended in solvent. it may be gases, liquids, or solids. when the particles are minute it is caled a solution, when the solute particles are fairly large is is called a suspension. colloids- translucent mixtues with solute particles in intermediate size |
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| when the particles are minute |
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| when the solute particles are fairly large |
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| translucent mixtues with solute particles in intermediate size |
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| salt, acids & bases dissolve easily in water and become easily distributed. molecules cannot react chemically unless they are n solution so virtually all chemical reactions that occur in the body depend upon water's solvent properties. molecules that lubricate the body use water |
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| Chemical reactivity of water |
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Definition
| water is an important REACTANT in some types of chemical reactions. to digest, water molecules are added to the bonds of the larger molecules. |
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Definition
| to digest foods or break down biological molecules, water molecules are added to the bonds of the larger molecules, this type of reaction recognized the specific role of water |
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Definition
| water serves as a protective. ex. cerebrospinal fluid- water forms a cushion around the brain that helps to protect it from physical trauma. The amniotic fluid serves to protect the fetus |
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Definition
| when dissolved in body fluids salts easily seperate into their ions, occurs rather easily bc the ions ahve already been formed. the ions just have to be pulled apart by the polar water molecules which put their neg end to the cations and overcome the attraction beteen them |
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Definition
| substances that conduct electrical current in solution. all salts are becasue ionds are charged particles. when the ionic (electrolyte) balance is disturned, virtually nothing in the body workds |
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| electrolytes. ionize and then dissociate into water and can conduct an electrical current |
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Definition
substance that can release HYDROGEN IONS (H+) in detectable amounts. defined as proton donors.sour, dissolve metal or "burn" a hole in your rug. when they dissolve in water they release hydrogen ions and some anions (unimp), the release of protons determnes an acids effect on the environment. HCL -> H+ +Cl-. ones that ionize completely liberating all their protons are called strong acids. Weak acids: acids that ionize incompltely as do acetic and carbond acid H2CO3 -> H+ +HCO3- + H2CO3 |
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Definition
| acds that ionize completely liberating all their protons |
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| acids that ionize incompltely as do acetic and carbond acid |
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Definition
| proton acceptors, bitter taste, feel slippery. hydroxids are common inorganic bases. the hydroxides ionize and dissociate in water, the hydroxyl ion (OH-) and some cations are released. NaOH-> Na+ + OH- |
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Definition
| exchange in which an acid and a base interact. HCl +NaOH -> H2O + NaCl |
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| relative concentration of hydrogen (and hydoxyl) ion in various body fluids is measured in these units. is based on the number of protons in solution expressed in terms of moles per liter. 0-14. 1 pH unit represents a tenfold exchange in hydrogen ion concentration. pH=7 is the scale midpointhydrogen ions=hydroxyl ions, the solution is neutral. acidic- pH lower than 7. basic-pH higher than 7. humans are sensitive to changes, it is regulated by the kidneys, lungers and chemicals called BUFFERS |
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Definition
| chemical that with the kidney and lungs regulates pH levels by taking up excess hydrogen or hydroxyl ions. weak bases and acids are important int he buffer system |
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Definition
| means "hydrated carbon" and in molecular formulas of sugars. classified according to size as momosaccharides, disaccharides or polysaccharidessugars, starches, contain carbon hydrogen and oxygen in the sme ratio as water. provide a ready, easily used source of food energy for cells, glucose is at the top of the "cellular menu". small amounts of carbs are used for structural purposes and represent 1 to 2% of the cell mass. sme are found in our geners, and others are attached to outer surfaces of cell membrances, where they act as road signs to guide cellular interactions |
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Definition
| aka simple sugars. single chain or single ring structures containing 3-7 carbon atoms. they are the structural units or building blocks of carbohydrates. most important ones: glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, deoxyribose |
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Definition
| monosaccharide, aka "lood sugar", the universal cellular fuel, at the top of the "cellular menu", when oxidized (combo with oxygen) in a complex set of chemical reactions, it is broken down into carbon dioxide and water. some of the energy released as the glucose bons are broken is trapped in the bonds of high- energy ATP molecules, the energy currency of all body cells. if not immediately needed for ATP synthesis, dietary carbohydrates are converted to glycogen or fat and stored |
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Definition
| monosaccharide, converted to glucose for use by body cells |
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Definition
| monosaccharides, form part of the structure of nucleic acids, another group of organic molecules |
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Definition
| aka.double sugars, formed when two simple sugars are joined by synthesis reaction known as dehydration synthesis. they are too large to pass through cell membranes, so they must be broken down into their monosaccharide units to be absorbed from the digestive tract into the blood, done through hydrolysis.important ones in the diet: sucrose, lactose, maltose. |
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Definition
| synthesis reaction that joins two simple sugars. a water molecule is lost as the bond forms |
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Definition
| (glucose-fructose), disaccharide, cane sugar |
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Definition
| (glucose-galactose) disaccharide, found in milk |
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Definition
| (glucose-glucose), disaccharide, malt sugar |
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Definition
| literally means "many sugars", are long, branching chains of linked simple sugars. because they are long insoluble molecules they are ideal for storage production. due to their size they lack sweetness of the simple and double sugars. important to the body: starch and glycogen |
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Definition
| storage polysaccharide formed by plants, we injest it in the form of "starchy" foods, such as grain product, and root vegtables (potatoes, carrots), formed of linked glucose units |
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Definition
| slightly smaller than starch, but similar, polysaccharide found in animal tissues (esp. muscle and liver) like glucoese it is formed of linked glucose units |
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Definition
| large and diverse group of organic compounds, enter the bodu in the form of fat-marbled meats, egg yolks, milk products and oils. like carbs, all lipids contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms, but in lipids, carbon and hydrogen atoms far outnumber oxygen atoms. most are insoluble in water, but readily dissolve in other lipids and in organic solvents such as alcohol and acetone. most abundant: triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids. |
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Term
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Definition
| aka. neutral fats, are composed of two types of building blocks, fatty acids and glycerol. their synthesis involves the attachment of three fatty acids to a single glycerol molecule. the result is an E- shaped molecule, that resembled the tines of a fork. althought the gycerol backbone is the same in all neutral fats, the fatty acid chains vary, this results in different kinds of neutral fats. they may be solid (typical animal fats) generally saturated, or liquid (plant oils)generally unsaturated. triglycerides represent the bodies most abundant and concentrated source of usable energy. when they are oxidized, they yield large amounts of energy. they are stored chiefly in fat deposits beneath the skin around body organs, where they help insulate the body and protect deeper body tissues from heat loss and bumps |
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Definition
| animal fats tend to be saturated fats. all carbons have single bonds |
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Term
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Definition
| the carbons of unsaturated fats have some double bonds, and thus have the ability to bind with more hydrogen atoms or atoms of a different type. |
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Definition
| similar to triglycerides. differ in that phosphorus- containing group is always part of the molecule and takes the place of one of the fatty acid chains. thus they have two instead of three attached fatty acids. The head: phosphorus-containing portion bears an electrical charge, gives phospholipids special chemical properties and polarity. the presence of phospholipids in cellular boundaries (membrances) allows cells to be selective about wat may eneter of leave. ex. the charged region attracts and interacts with water and ions, but the fatty acid chains (the tail) do not. |
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Definition
| basically flat molecules formed of four interlocking rings thus their structure differs wuite a bit from that of fats. like fats they are made largely of hydrogen and carbon atoms and are fat- soluble. most important one: cholesterol. some is made by the liver , reguardless of dietary intake. it is foud in all cell membrances and it is particularly abundant in the brain. it is the raw material used to form vitamen D, some hormones (sec and cortisol), and bile salts. |
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Definition
| single most important steriod molecule. enters the body in animal products such as meat, eggs, and cheese |
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Term
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Definition
| the deposite of fatty substances in artery walls. saturated fats, along with cholesterol have been implicated as substances to encourage this and eventual arteriosclerosis. as a result, olive oil and lipid spreads made from polysaturated fats are being promoted as products that arent bad for us |
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Definition
| hardening of the arteries. saturated fats along with cholesterol, have been implicated as substances that encourage artheroscelerosis and eventually this (anteriosclerosis) |
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Definition
| account for over 50% of the organic matter in the body, have the most varied functions of the organic molecules. some are construction materials, others play vital roles in cell function. like proteins and lipids, all proteins contain carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen in addition to nitrogen and sometimes sulfer atoms as well. their building block is small molecules called amino acids |
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Term
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Definition
| small molecules that are the building blocks of proteins. about 20 varieties are found in proteins. al have an amine group, that gives them their basic properties and in acid group (COOH) which allows them to act as acids. all are identical except for a single group of atoms called the R- groups. are joined together in chains to form large, complex protein molecules that contain from 50 to thousands of amno acids. because each has distinct propertires, the sequence in which they are bound together produces proteins that vary widely both in structure and function. (20 amino acids can be compared to 20- leter alphabet. letters (amino acids) are used in specific combinations to form words (protein) one letter can form an entirely differnt meaning. literally thoughsands of different protein molecules can be made. |
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Term
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Definition
| gives them their basic propertires, all amino acids have this |
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Definition
| which all allows amino acids to act as acids |
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Term
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Definition
| single group of atoms. the only thing different between identical amino acids (differences in the R- groups make each amino acid chemically unique) |
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Term
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Definition
| amino acid chains containing fewer than 50 amino acids |
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Term
| fibrous and globular proteins |
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Definition
| based on their overall shape and structure, proteins are classed as either fibrous or globular proteins |
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Term
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Definition
| aka. structural proteins, standlike, appear most often in body structures together and for providing strength in certain body tissues. ex. collagen and keratin |
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Definition
| fibrous protein, is found in bones, catilage, and tendons, and is the most abundant protein in the body |
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Definition
| fibrous protein, is the structural protein of hair and nails and the material that makes skin tough |
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Definition
| aka. functional proteins.mobile, generally spherical molecules that play crucial roles n virtualy all biological processes, becuse they do things rather than just form structures. the scope of their activities is remarkable, some anti. some antibodies help to provide immunity, others (hormones) help to regulate growth and development. others called enzymes, are biological catalysts that regulate essentually every chemical reaction that goes on within the body. they are not stable. hydrogen bonds are critically important in maintaining their , but hydrogen bonds are fragile and are eaily broken by heat and excesses of pH. when their 3-D structures are destroyed, the proteins are said to be DENATURED and can no longer perform their physiological roles. their function depends on their specific structure, most impo on the presence of particular collections of atoms called ACTIVE SITES on their surface that "fit" and interact chemically with other molecules of complementary shape and charge. except for enzymes most imp types of functional proteins are described witht he organ sstem or functional process to which they are closely related. |
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Definition
| functional proteins that act as biological catalysts (substance that increases te rate of a chemical rxn without becoming part of the product or being changed itself) that regulate essentially every chemical reaction that goes on within the body; they do this by binding to and "holding" the reacting molecules in the proper position for chemical interaction. while the substrates are bound to the enzymes active site, they undergo structural changes that result in a new product. once the reaction has occured, the enzyme releases the product. enzymes are not changed doing their job, so they are reusable and only small amounts of each enzyme are needed by the cells; they are capable of catalyzing millions of rxns each minute. dont just increase the speed of chemical rxns, they also determine just what rxns are possible at a particular time. without, biochemical reactions would occur far too slowly to sustain life. hundreds of different kinds of enzymes, they are specific in their activities, each controlling only one (of few) chemical reactions, and acting only on specific molecules. names according to the specific type of reaction they catalyze. for enzymes that promote blood clottingwhen a blood vessel has been damagesd. many produced in an inactive form and must be activated in some way before they can function. in other cases they are activated immediately after they have performed their catalytic function |
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| the proteins that loose their 3D structure and can no loger proform physiological roles. because their function depends on their specific structure- but more imp on the presence of particular collections of active sites |
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| proteins function depends on their specific structure- most imp on the presence of particular collections of atoms called ACTIVE SITES on their surface that "fit" ad interact chemically with other molecules of complementary shape and charge |
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| a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without becoming part of the product or being changed itself |
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| they make up the genes, which provide the basic blueprint of life.determine what type of organism you'll be , and direct your growth and development (mostly by dictating protein structure). composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorus atoms. the largest biological molecules in the body. built from nucleotides. the two major kinds: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) |
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| building blocks to nucleic acid, they are quite complex. each consists of three basic parts: 1)nitrogen-containing base 2) pentose (5 carbon) sugar 3) phosphate group. The bases come in five varieties: adenine (a), guanine (g), cytosine (c), thymine (t) and uracil (u). A and G are large, two ring bases whereas the others are smaller, single ring structures. names according to the base they contain |
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| (DNA) one of the major kinds of nucleic acid), genetic material found within the cell nucleus. two fundamental roles 1) replicates itself exactly before a cell divides, so that every cell in the body is identical 2) provides the instructions for building every protein int he body. long double chain of nucleotides bases: A,G,C,T and its sugar is deoxyribose. two nucleotide chains are held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases. alternating sugar and phosphate molecules from the "uprights" or backbone. complementary bases C and G and A and T. forms caseike- "double helix" double stranded |
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| (RNA)located outside the nucleus and can be considered "molecular slave" of DNA, because it carries out the orders for protein sythesis issued by DNA. one of major kinds of nucleic acid. joined of nucleotides. single stands. bases: A,G,C, and U (the u replaces the t from DNA) major varieties: messenger, ribosomal, and transfer RNA (each with a specific role in carrying out DNA's instructions for building proteins. |
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| carries info for building the protein from the DNA genes to the ribosomes (protein synthesizing sites) |
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| ferried amino acids to the ribosomes |
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| forms part of the ribosomes, where it oversees the translation of the message and the binding together of amino acids to form proteins |
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| ATP, provides a form of chemical energy that is usable by all body cells. without it molecules cannot be made of broken down, cells cannot maintain their boundaries, and all life functions stop. energy released as glucose is catabolized, captured and stored in the bonds of ATP molecules as sall packets of energy. structurally ATP is a modified nucleotide. consists of adenine base, ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups which are attached by high energy phosphate bonds. ATP supplies are replenished by oxidation of food fuels |
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| high-energy phosphate bonds |
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| unique bonds that attach phosphate groups. when ruptured by hydrolysis, energy that can be used immediately by the cell to do work, or power an activity |
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| (ADP) accululates cellular energy |
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