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Chapter 2
The Chemical Level of Organization
101
Anatomy
Undergraduate 2
10/28/2017

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Term
What are atoms composed of?
Definition
Protons+, neutrons, and electrons-
Term
What is the mass of an atom?
Definition
The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
Term
What is the atomic number?
Definition
The number of protons in an atom
Term
What is an element?
Definition
A pure substance composed of atoms of only one kind.
Term
what is the atomic weight?
Definition
an average of the different atomic masses and proportions of its different isotopes
Term
what is an isotope?
Definition
Atoms of the same element whose nuclei contain different numbers of neutrons
Term
what are reactive elements?
Definition
Elements that readily interact or combine with other atoms due to an unfilled outermost energy level
Term
what are inert elements?
Definition
Elements that do not readily participate in chemical processes, such as helium, neon, and argon. Their outer energy levels are filled.
Term
What is a molecule?
Definition
Any chemical structure consisting of atoms held together by shared electrons.
Term
What is a compound?
Definition
A pure chemical substance made up of atoms of 2 or more different elements in a fixed proportion
Term
What is an ion?
Definition
An atom or group of atoms that has an electric charge.
Term
What is a cation?
Definition
An ion with a positive charge.
Term
What is an anion?
Definition
An ion with a negative charge.
Term
What is a chemical bond created by the electrical attraction between cations and anions?
Definition
An ionic bond.
Term
What is a covalent bond?
Definition
A chemical bond between atoms that involves the sharing of electrons
Term
The sharing of one pair of electrons creates what type of bond?
Definition
A single covalent bond.
Term
What do you get when you share 2 pair of electrons?
Definition
A double covalent bond.
Term
What is a nonpolar covalent bond?
Definition
A covalent bond involving the equal sharing of electrons.
Term
What is a polar covalent bond?
Definition
An unequal sharing of electrons. Ex: H2O, the electrons spend more time orbiting the oxygen nucleus due to its stronger pull
Term
What is a hydrogen bond?
Definition
It is the attraction between a slight (+) charge on the H atom of a polar covalent bond and a slight (-) charge on an O, Nitrogen, or flourine atom of another covalent bond.
Term
What happens in a chemical reaction?
Definition
New chemical bonds form between atoms or existing bonds between atoms are broken.
Term
What are reactants?
Definition
Reactants are the starting materials in a chemical reaction.
Term
What is a product?
Definition
The result of a chemical reaction.
Term
What is metabolism
Definition
All of the reactions under way in the cells and tissues of the body at any given time is metabolism.
Term
What are the two major types of energy?
Definition
Kinetic and potential.
Term
What is kinetic energy?
Definition
The energy of motion-energy that can be transferred to another object and do work?
Term
What is potential energy?
Definition
Stored energy-energy that has the potential to do work.
Term
what is a decomposition reaction?
Definition
It breaks a molecule into smaller fragments.
AB-->A+B
It takes place outside cells.
Term
What is hydrolysis?
Definition
One of the bonds in a complex molecule is broken, and the components of a water molecule (H and OH) are added to the resulting fragments.
A-B+H20-->A-H+HO-B
Term
What is catabolism?
Definition
Breakdown of complex or organic molecules into simpler components accompanied by the release of energy.
Term
What is synthesis?
Definition
The opposite of decomposition.
A+B-->AB
A synthesis reaction assembles smaller molecules into larger molecules.
Term
What is dehydration synthesis?
Definition
The formation of a complex molecule by the removal of a water molecule. The opposite of hydrolysis.
A-H+HO-B-->A-B+H20
Term
What is anabolism?
Definition
The synthesis of new molecules within the bodies cells and tissues.
Term
What is an exchange reaction?
Definition
Parts of the reacting molecules are shuffled around to produce new products.
AB+CD-->AD+CB
Term
What is a reversible reaction?
Definition
A+B<-->AB Two reactions are taking place at the same time. One is a synthesis and one is a decomposition. Jello.
Term
What is activation energy?
Definition
The amount of energy required to start a reaction.
Term
What are enzymes?
Definition
Enzymes promote chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy required. They belong to catalysts.
Term
What is a catalyst?
Definition
A compound that speeds up a chemical reaction without themselves being consumed.
A+B enzyme AB
<--->
Term
Reactions that release energy are said to be ______
Definition
Exergonic. Relatively common. They generate The heat that maintains your body temperature.
Term
If more energy is required to being the reaction than is released as it proceeds, the reaction as a whole will absorb energy. These reactions are known as _____
Definition
Engergonic
Term
What are metabolites?
Definition
Substances that are involved in or a byproduct of metabolism.
Term
What are the 4 properties of water?
Definition
1. Solubility
2. High heat capacity
3. Lubrication
4. Reactivity
Term
Why is a water molecule called a polar molecule?
Definition
Because it has positive and negative ends due to the hydrogen atoms being fairly close together.
Term
What are electrolytes?
Definition
Soluble inorganic substances whose ions will conduct an electrical current in solution.
Term
What is a hydrophilic molecule?
Definition
It is a molecule that interacts readily with water molecules.
Term
What is a hydrophic molecule?
Definition
Molecules that do not readily interact with water molecules.
Term
What is a colloid?
Definition
Liquid jello. A solution containing dispersed proteins or other large molecules. The particles or molecules will remain in solution indefinitely.
Term
What is a suspension?
Definition
Contains large particles in a solution but if undisturbed its particles will settle out of solution due to the force of gravity.
Term
What is pH?
Definition
It is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration in moles per liter. 1x10-7
Term
What is an acid?
Definition
Any solute that dissociates in solution and releases hydrogen ions, lowering the pH. Example: HCl -->H+ + Cl-
Term
What is a base?
Definition
A solute that removes the hydrogen ions from the solution, raising the pH.
Term
What is a salt.
Definition
An ionic compound containing any cation except a hydrogen ion and any anion except a hydroxide ion. Held together by ionic bonds.
Term
What are buffers?
Definition
Compounds that stabilize the pH of a solution by removing or replacing hydrogen ions. example: alka seltzer.
Term
What are carbohydrates?
Definition
They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio. Examples: sugars and starches.
Term
What is a monosaccharide?
Definition
A carbohydrate with 3-7 carbon atoms.
Term
What are isomers?
Definition
Molecules which have the same molecular formula but different structures.
Term
What is a disaccharide?
Definition
2 monosaccharides joined together.
Term
How do all carbohydrates except monosaccharides provide useful energy?
Definition
By being broken apart during hydrolysis.
Term
What is a polysaccharide?
Definition
Repeated dehydrations synthesis reactions add additional mono or disaccharides. Example, cellulose or starch.
Term
Where is glycogen made and stored?
Definition
In muscle cells.
Term
What are the 5 classes of lipids?
Definition
fatty acids, eicosanoids, glycerides, steroids, and phospholipids and glycolipids.
Term
What is a fatty acid?
Definition
A long carbon chain with hydrogen atoms attached. One end is always attached to a carboxyl group (-COOH). The carbon chain attached to the carboxyl group is the hydrocarbon tail of the fatty acid.
Term
Fatty acids may be either ____ or ______.
Definition
Saturated or unsaturated.
Term
What kind of bond does a saturated fatty acid have?
Definition
A single covalent bond only.
Term
What kind of bond does an unsaturated fatty acid have?
Definition
one or more double covalent bonds
Term
What is an eicosinoid?
Definition
A lipid derived from arachidonic acid that must be absorbed in the diet because the body cannot synthesize it.
Term
What are the two kinds of eicosinoids?
Definition
Leukotriens and prostaglandins.
Term
What are Leukotriens?
Definition
An eicosinoid produced mostly by cells involved with coordinating the responses to injury or disease.
Term
What is a prostaglandin?
Definition
short chain fatty acids in which 5 of the carbon atoms are joined in a ring. REleased by cells to coordinate or direct local cellular activities. Extremely powerful.
Term
glyceride
Definition
a lipid composed of glycerol bound to fatty acids
Term
3 functions of triglycerides
Definition
Energy source
Insulation
Protection
Term
steroids
Definition
large lipid molecules that share a distinctive 4-ring carbon framework.
Term
why is cholesterol (a steroid) important?
Definition
needed for plasma membranes
involved in regulation of sexual function
a)estrogen, b)testosterone
regulation of tissue metabolism
Ex:corticosteroids from the adrenal glands, calcitriol from the kidneys
steroid derivatives called bile salts are needed to process dietary fats
Term
phospholipids and glycolipids
Definition
phospholipids-a phosphate group links a diglyceride to a non-lipid group
glycolipids-a carbohydrate is attached to a diglyceride
Term
Proteins contain:
Definition
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen and are formed from amino acids
Term
7 categories of functions of proteins
Definition
1.support
2.movement
3.transport
4.buffering
5.metabolic regulation
6.coordination and control
7.defense (antibodies)
Term
an amino acid consists of 5 parts
Definition
1.a central carbon atom
2.a hydrogen atom
3.an amino group (--NH2)
4.a carboxyl group (-COOH)
5.an R group (a variable side chain of 1 or more atoms
Term
peptides
Definition
molecules consisting of amino acids held together by peptide bonds
Term
peptide bond
Definition
a covalent bond between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another.
Term
Primary structure
Definition
the sequence of amino acids along the length of a single polypeptide held together by peptide bonds
Term
Secondary structure
Definition
from the presence of hydrogen bonds between atoms at different parts of the polypeptide chain. Either an alpha helix (simple spiral) or beta sheet (a flat pleated sheet)
Term
Tertiary structure
Definition
the complex coiling and folding that gives a protein its final 3-D shape. Results primarily from hydrophobic and hydrophlic interactions between the R groups and the surrounding water molecules
Term
Quaternary structure
Definition
the interaction between individual polypeptide chains to form a protein complex.
Term
Fibrous proteins
Definition
form extended sheets or strands. Tough, durable, insoluble in water
Term
Globular proteins
Definition
compact, generally rounded and soluble in water. can function only if they remain in solution. Ex: myoglobin, a protein in muscle cells; hemoglobin, oxygen carrying molecule in red blood cells
Term
substrates
Definition
the reactants in enzymatic reactions
Term
3 characteristics of enzymes
Definition
1.specificity-each enzyme catalyzes only 1 type of reaction
2.saturation limits-the substrate concentration required to have the maximum rate of reaction
3.regulation-any particular enzyme may be active under one set of conditions and inactive under another
Term
cofactor
Definition
an ion or a molecule that must bind to an enzyme before substrates can also bind.
Term
coenzymes
Definition
nonprotein organic molecules that function as cofactors
Term
denaturation
Definition
a change in tertiary or quaternary structure that makes it non-functional. Frying an egg.
Term
glycoproteins
Definition
large proteins with small carbohydrate groups attached. important in immune response. glycoproteins called mucins absorb water to produce mucus.
Term
proteoglycans
Definition
large polysaccharide molecules linked by polypeptide chains. bind adjacent cells together, give tissue fluids a syrupy consistency.
Term
Nucleic acids
Definition
large organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. store and process info at the molecular level inside cells
Term
2 classes of nucleic acid molecules
Definition
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Term
ATP
Definition
a high energy compound used by cells
Term
high-energy bond
Definition
a covalent bond whose breakdown releases energy the cell can use directly
Term
phosphorylation
Definition
the process of attaching a phosphate group to another molecule
Term
AMP-adenosine monophosphate
Definition
an important substrate that contains one phosphate group
Term
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
Definition
attaching a second phosphate group to AMP which requires a significant energy input to convert. the second phosphate is attached by a high-energy bond
Term
Adenosine triphophate (ATP)
Definition
The conversion of ADP to ATP is the most important method of storing energy in our cells. The breakdown of ATP to ADP is the most important method of releasing energy.
Term
what is the enzyme needed to hydrolytically breakdown ATP to ADP
Definition
Adenisone triphosphatase (ATPase)
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