Term
page 380
Machiavelli, Niccolo
(1469-1527) |
|
Definition
Author of The Prince (16th century); emphasized realistic discussions of how to seize and maintain power; one of the most influential authors of Italian Renaissance
Significance: -influential thinker on subjects of obtaining and maintaining power
Analyze: -result of revival of Greek and Roman thinking |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Focus on humankind as center of intellectual and artistic endeavor; method of study that emphasized the superiority of classical forms over Medieval styles, in particular the study of ancient languages
Significance: -more secular focuses
-emphasized humankind as intellectual and artistic superiors
-led to many reformations in culture, politics, and social life
Analyze: -may have been in part to Italy's urban environment, but was probably because of Greek/Roman revival |
|
|
Term
Page 382
Northern Renaissance |
|
Definition
Cultural and intellectual movement of Northern Europe; began later than Italian Renaissance c. 1450; centered in France, Low Countries, England, and Germany; featured greater emphasis on religion than Italian Renaissance
Significance: -similar to Italian Renaissance besides the greater emphasis on religion
Analyze: -began in different geographic location and time |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
King of France in the 16th century; regarded as Renaissance monarch; patron of arts; imposed new controls on Catholic church; ally of Ottoman sultan against Holy Roman emperor
Significance: -funded artistic endeavors (Italian sculptors and architects)
-formed alliance (in name) with Ottoman sultan
Analyze: -time of Northern Renaissance; arts were popular
-early instance of power politics |
|
|
Term
page 383
Gutenberg, Johannes |
|
Definition
Introduced moveable type in western Europe in 15th century; credited with greatly expanded availability of printed books and pamphlets
Significance: -introduced moveable type by building on Chinese technology
-expanded availability of books; literacy gained ground, as well as new kinds of thinking
Analyze: -higher availability of books meant more people could afford to read them |
|
|
Term
page 383
European-style Family |
|
Definition
Originated in 15th century among peasants and artisans of western Europe, featuring late marriage age, emphasis on the nuclear family, and large minority who never married
Significance: -example of major social changes; made husband-wife relations more important
-linked family to individual property holdings
Analyze: -intended to decrease birthrates |
|
|
Term
page 383
Luther, Martin
(1483-1546) |
|
Definition
German monk; initiated Protestant Reformation in 1517 by nailing 95 theses to door of Wittenberg church; emphasized primacy of faith over works stressed in Catholic church; accepted state control of church
Significance: -initiator of Protestant Reformation
-believed only faith could gain salvation
-accepted state control of church
Analyze: -he'd become angry with papal reps selling indulgences for money, but also disagreed with other Catholic beliefs, like celibacy and the Pope |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
General wave of religious dissent against Catholic church; generally held to have begun with Luther's attack on Catholic beliefs in 1517; included many varieties of religious belief
Significance: -urged state control as alternative to papal authority
-predecessor of many sects, including Anglican church
Analyze: -many resented the Roman pope
-German princes saw it as an opportunity to gain power
-ordinary people liked the idea of Luther's approval of work, moneymaking, and other earthly pursuits |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Form of Protestantism set up in England after 1534; est. by Henry VII with himself as head, at least in part to obtain a divorce from his first wife; became increasingly Protestant after his death
Significance: -allowed divorce
-very similar to Protestantism
-challenged papal restrictions
Analyze: -Henry VII wanted a divorce from his 1st wife
-Henry's death allowed the sect to become more Protestant due to lack of monarchical interference |
|
|
Term
page 384
Calvin, Jean
(French protestant, 16th century, [Calvinism]) |
|
Definition
He stressed doctrine of predestination; est. center of his group at Swiss canton of Geneva; encouraged ideas of wider access to government, public education; Calvinism spread from Switzerland ~ N. Europe ~ N. America
Significance: -encouraged participation in church from all believers, as well as broader education
-brought to N. America in early 17th century
Analyze: -participation of all believers increased idea of access to government
-higher literacy rates = more reading of the Bible
-brought to N. America by Puritan Exiles |
|
|
Term
page 384
Catholic Reformation |
|
Definition
Restatement of traditional Catholic beliefs in response to Protestant Reformation (16th century); est. councils that revived Catholic doctrine and refuted Protestant beliefs
Significance: -attacked Protestant tenets (i.e. anti-celibacy) and popular superstitions regarding magic
Analyze: -attempt to win over converts and discourage following Protestantism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
New religious order founded during Catholic Reformation; active in politics, education, missionary work; sponsored missions to S. America, N. America, and Asia
Significance: -regained some parts of Europe for church --sponsored missionary work, education, and politics
Analyze: -same goal as Catholic Reformers: gain converts and spread word of God |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Grant of tolerance to Protestants in France in 1598; granted only after lengthy civil war between Catholic and Protestant factions
Significance: -allowed Protestants to practice faith, but French kings progressively cut back on their rights throughout the next century
Analyze: -wars were expensive and everyone wanted to stop funding them |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
War within Holy Roman Empire between German Protestants and their allies (Sweden, Denmark, France) and the emperor and his ally (Spain); ended in 1648 after great destruction with Treaty of Westphalia
Significance: -reduced German power and prosperity for a full century
-in some areas, cut population by as much as 60%
Analyze: -conflicting ideas over what religion is the right one to follow |
|
|
Term
page 385
Treaty of Westphalia |
|
Definition
Ended 30 Years War in 1648; granted right to individual rulers within the Holy Roman Empire to choose their own religion- either Protestant or Catholic
Significance: -permitted rulers to choose official religion of their region
Analyze: -Similar to Edict of Nantes; wars are always costly and take great tolls on the majority of the population |
|
|
Term
page 386
English Civil War
(1640-1660) |
|
Definition
Conflict that featured religious disputes mixed with constitutional issues concerning the powers of the monarchy; ended with restoration of monarchy in 1660 following execution of previous king
Significance: -conflicts over religion, rights of monarchical rulers
-eventually granted rights to Protestants, but not to Catholics
Analyze: -anger over kings' belief of divine appointment
-some kings were Catholic, and this angered the Protestant community
-overall, it was due to monarchical injustices |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Class of working people without access to producing property; typically manufacturing workers; paid laborers in agricultural economy, or urban poor; in Europe, product of economic changes of 16th and 17th centuries
Significance: -proletariats only considered to have value because of their physical abilities
Analyze: -population growth and food prices resulted in many people having to sell their land
-proletariats had to depend on merchant capitalists to buy and distribute their product |
|
|
Term
page 387
Witchcraft persecution |
|
Definition
Reflected resentment against the poor, uncertainties about religious truth; resulted in death of over 100,000 Europeans between 1590 and 1650; particularly common in Protestant areas
Significance: -demonstrated confusion over religion and hatred towards the impoverished
Analyze: -communities unwilling to accept responsibility for poverty, as well as confusion from developing societies |
|
|
Term
page 389
Scientific Revolution |
|
Definition
Culminated in 17th century; period of empirical advances associated with the development of wider theoretical generalizations; resulted in change in traditional beliefs of Middle Ages
Significance: -affected both intellectuals and popular beliefs (i.e. Copernicus and heliocentricity)
Analyze: -less focus on religion and revival of Greek/Roman thought allowed new ways of thinking to evolve |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Polish monk and astronomer (16th century); disproved Hellenistic belief that the earth was at the center of the universe
Significance: -proposed idea of heliocentric system and proved it
-epitomized Scientific Revolution
Analyze: -used mathematics to disprove previous calculations of planetary motion
-may have copied from Arabs |
|
|
Term
page 389
Johannes Kepler
(Dec. 27, 1571 - Nov. 15, 1630) |
|
Definition
Astronomer and mathematician who was a prominent figure in the Scientific Revolution
Significance: -resolved basic issues of planetary motion
-cast horoscopes for wealthy patrons
Analyze: -based research on Copernican findings; improved upon it
-studied astrology and used stars for horoscopes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Published Copernicus's findings (17th century); added own discoveries concerning laws of gravity and planetary motion; condemned by Catholic church for his work
Significance: -disproved previous theories about planetary motion and added ideas to publicized Copernican works
-condemned by Church for his innovations
Analyze: -improvements upon microscope and telescope
-further discoveries could disprove existence of God and cause the Church to lose followers and money |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
English physician (17th century) who demonstrated circular movement of blood in animals, function of heart as pump
Significance: -major medical achievement by proving heart to be source of blood circulation
Analyze: -advances in biology and other branches of science |
|
|
Term
page 390
Francis Bacon
(22 January 1561-9 April 1626) |
|
Definition
English philosopher, statesman, author, and scientist; influential member of Scientific Revolution; best known for work on scientific method
Significance: -urged careful empirical research and predicted steady advancement of knowledge
-statesman, author, scientist, and philosopher
Analyze: -Scientific Revolution stressed these ideals; proving theories rather than relying solely on faith |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Est. importance of skeptical review of all received wisdom (17th century); argued that human reason could then develop laws that would explain the fundamental workings of nature
Significance: -suggested a world of matter possessing a few fundamental properties and interacting according to a few universal laws
Analyze: -exposure to ancient greats such as Plato and Aristotle caused him to explore the metaphysical |
|
|
Term
page 390
Newton, Isaac
(1643-1727) |
|
Definition
English scientist; author of Principia; drew together astronomical and physical observations and wider theories into a neat framework of natural laws; est. principles of motion; defined forces of gravity
Significance: -defined laws of motion and gravity; explained planetary orbits described by Kepler
-stated basic scientific method
Analyze: -he drew his works on previous theories and observations regarding astronomy and physical aspects of nature |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Concept of God current during the Scientific Revolution; role of divinity was to set natural laws in motion, not to regulate once process was begun
Significance: -stressed concept of God setting natural laws in motion, then ceasing to intervene
-new religious ideology, very different from previous belief systems
Analyze: -new scientific discoveries in new religious ideologies as well |
|
|
Term
page 390
Locke, John
(1632-1704) |
|
Definition
English philosopher who argued that people could learn everything through senses and reason and that power of government came from the people, not divine right of kings; offered possibility of revolution to overthrow tyrants
Significance: -argued that common sense and reason were enough to understand universe and faith was irrelevant
-suggested possibility of overthrowing tyrants
Analyze: -scientific advances created wider assumptions about the possibility of human progress |
|
|
Term
page 392
Absolute monarchy |
|
Definition
Concept of government development during rise of nation-states in western Europe during 17th century; feat. monarchs who passed laws w/o parliaments, appointed professionalized armies and bureaucracies, est. state churches, imposed state economic policies
Significance: -monarchs passed laws without parliament
-appointed professionalized armies and bureaucracies
-established state churches and imposed state economic policies
Analyze: -strong power exerted by monarchs allowed them to gain control over parliament
-desire for a more united nation-state |
|
|
Term
page 392
Louis XIV
(1638-1715) |
|
Definition
French monarch of the late 17th century who personified absolute monarchy
Significance: -major patron of the arts (i.e. Palace at Versailles)
-reduced internal tariffs and stressed mercantilism
-established academies to encourage the French language, as well as science
Analyze: -tactics used to make France a powerful nation-state
-exemplified monarchical influence |
|
|
Term
page 393
Glorious Revolution |
|
Definition
English overthrow of James II in 1688; resulted in affirmation of parliament as having basic sovereignty over the king
Significance:-parliament won basic sovereignty over king
-allowed them to monitor or initiate most policies
Analyze: -end of English Civil Wars produced this final settlement |
|
|
Term
page 393
Parliamentary monarchy |
|
Definition
Originated in England and Holland, 17th century, with kings partially checked by significant legislative powers in parliaments
Significance: -required monarch to follow guidelines and check in with parliament; stricter than absolute monarchy
Analyze: -result of Glorious Revolution and agreed settlement |
|
|
Term
page 394
Frederick the Great |
|
Definition
Prussian king of 18th century; attempted to introduce Enlightenment reforms into Germany; built on military and bureaucratic foundations of predecessors; introduced freedom of religion; increased state control of economy
Significance: -introduced greater freedom of religion as well as state control of economy
-encouraged Enlightenment and better agricultural methods (i.e. Potato as staple crop)
Analyze: -Frederick claimed to be an "Enlightened despot"; fought to better the lives of all, not a select few |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Intellectual movement centered in France during the 18th century; featured scientific advance, application of scientific methods to study of human society; belief that rational laws could describe social behavior
Significance: -stressed idea that knowledge could be used to improve policy
-no major scientific breakthroughs, but better understandings of chemistry and biology were important
Analyze: -purpose was to reform society and propose more logical ways of running a civilization, improve scientific understanding, and digress from traditional beliefs in faith and religion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Established liberal economics (Wealth of Nations, 1776); argued that government should avoid regulation of economy in favor of the operation of market forces
Significance: -demonstrated how general models of human belief could be derived from human thought
-early figure of modern economics
Analyze: -ideas resembled what is now called capitalism
-view of relaxed economics referred to as "Laissez-Faire" |
|
|
Term
page 394
Denis Diderot
(Oct. 5, 1713-Jul. 31, 1784) |
|
Definition
French Enlightenment figure best known for his work on the first Encyclopedia
Significance: -worked on first Encyclopedia, which complied scientific and social scientific knowledge
-also wrote on mathematics, philosophy, and psychology
Analyze: -major contributions to educating the public made him a figure of the Enlightenment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Refers to the spread of deep interest in acquiring material goods and services spreading below elite levels, along with a growing economic capacity to afford some of these goods; examples may be found in several premodern societies, but most clear instance began in Western Europe from 18th century onward
Significance: -demonstrated vibrant economy of time and shifting social relationships between classes
Analyze: -gentry and prosperous merchants extended across social classes
-colonialism increased trading possibilities
-larger middle class meant more people could afford luxuries |
|
|
Term
page 396
Wollstonecraft, Mary
(1759-1797) |
|
Definition
Enlightenment feminist thinker in England; argued that new political rights should be extended to women
Significance: -one of the first feminists to emerge
-reasoned that women deserved rights in politics
Analyze: -secular and logical themes of Enlightenment created new ways of thinking in all social classes and both genders |
|
|
