Term
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Definition
| all the chemical rxn that occur in an organism |
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Term
| What is cellular metabolism? |
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Definition
| Refers to the collective chemical rxns that occur within cells in order to provide the energy needed to maintain homeostasis and to perform essential functions. |
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Term
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Definition
| Chemical rxns where organic compounds are created. BUILD UP |
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Term
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Definition
| Chemical rxns where organic compounds are broken down. |
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Term
| What is metabolic turnover? |
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Definition
| Cells continuously break down and replace all of their organic components except DNA |
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Term
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Definition
| An accessible reserve of organic compounds that can be used to metabolic turnover or energy production. |
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Term
| Where do cells absorb organic molecules from? This supplements what? |
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Definition
| Surrounding interstitial fluids. Those released through catabolic rxns in metabolic turnover. |
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Term
| The components of the nutrient pool can be used for ______ or broken down further for ATP production. |
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Definition
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Term
| During the catabolic rxn of mitochondria, roughly ____ of the energy is used for the production of ATP and cellular work. |
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Definition
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Term
| The other 60% is lost as _____. |
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Definition
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Term
| Cells can break down any available _____ from the nutrient pool to obtain energy. |
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Definition
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Term
| How are nutrients obtained? |
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Definition
| Via digestion and absorption and then distributed to the body cells via the blood and fluids. |
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Term
| What is the primary fuel source? |
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Definition
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Term
| _____ ____ require a constant stream of glucose. What happens during starvation? |
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Definition
| Neural tissue. Other tissues can shift to fatty acids or amino acids to conserve glucose for neural tissue. |
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Term
| Liver cells store? If absorption fails, what happens? |
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Definition
| Triglycerides and glycogen reserves. These reserves are broken down and used for energy. |
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Term
| Skeletal muscles at rest metabolize? |
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Definition
| fatty acids and use glucose to build glycogen reserves. |
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Term
| If the body is unable to maintain normal nutrient levels, the _____ proteins can be broken down and release the amino acids into circulation for use by other tissues. |
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Definition
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Term
| Salivary amylase does what? |
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Definition
| IN THE MOUTH. Breaks down complex carbohydrates into a mixture of disaccarides and oligosaccarides. |
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Term
| Where is salivary amylase denatured? |
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Definition
| The stomach. Carbohydrate digestion stops. |
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Term
| What happens when chyme arrives in the duodenum? |
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Definition
| Secretin stimulates the secretion of sodium bicarbonate which buffers the PH so intestinal enzymes will work properly. |
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Term
| What is happening at the same time? |
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Definition
| CCK triggers the release of pancreatic amylase which continues the break down of carbs. |
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Term
| What is released by carbohydrates and what does it do? |
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Definition
| GIP. Stiumlates the release of insulin by the pancreas. |
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Term
| What secrets enzymes to digest the disaccarides into monosaccarides? |
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Definition
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Term
Maltase breaks maltose into?
Sucrase breaks sucrose into?
Lactase breaks lactose into? |
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Definition
2 glucose.
1 glucose and 1 fructose.
1 glucose and 1 galactose. |
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Term
| What happens to the monosaccarides next? |
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Definition
| They are absorbed across the apical surface of the brush border cells, through the cytoplasm, and then pass by facilitated diffusion across the basolateral surfaces into the capillaries of the hepatic portal vein. |
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Term
| What are indigestible carbs called? What is it? |
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Definition
| FIBER. A nutrient source for the bacterial flora of the large intestine. The bacterial flora generate small qualities of intestinal gas called flatus. |
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Term
| Once the liver receives the monosaccarides, they are converted into glucose, which are released into the blood stream for transport to body cells and used in _____ ________ while any excess glucose molecules are stored in the liver as ______. |
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Definition
| ATP production. Glycogen. |
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Term
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Definition
| Conversion of excess glucose into glycogen. Limited amount for short term use. Can also be produced and stored in skeletal muscle cells. |
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Term
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Definition
| When glucose consumption is not adequate to maintain blood glucose levels, glycogen may be broken down and released stored glucose molecules into the blood. |
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Term
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Definition
| When glucose molecules are synthesized from smaller carbon chains derived from fats or proteins. Occurs after glycogen stores have been depleted and as a last resort for energy production. |
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Term
| What is the preferred substrate for catabolism? |
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Definition
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Term
| LOOK AT YOUR GLYCOLYSIS, CITRIC ACID AND ETS NOTES |
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Definition
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Term
| What cell secretes insulin? |
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Definition
| Beta cells of the islet of langerhaans in the pancreas. |
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Term
| When is insulin secreted? |
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Definition
| When blood glucose levels are HIGH. Insulin lowers blood sugar by stimulating glycogenesis, lipogenesis, and gluocse catabolism. |
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Term
| What cell secretes glucagon? |
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Definition
| Alpha cells of the islet of langerhaans in the pancreas. |
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Term
| When is glucagon secreted? |
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Definition
| When blood glucose levels are LOW. Raises blood sugar levels by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogensis. |
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Term
| The bolus in the mouth is mixed with ____ ____ and minimal ____ digestion begins. |
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Definition
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Term
| Why is lingual lipase ineffective? |
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Definition
| Lipids are hydrophobic and the lipase can only attack triglycerides at the surface of fat droplets. LL continues to function in the stomach, only 20% of the triglycerides get broken down by the time it leaves the stomach. |
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Term
| What happens when fatty chyme reaches the duodenum? |
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Definition
| CCK stimulates the release of bile from the liver/gallbladder to emulsify fats. CCK also stimulates the release of pancreatic lipase which can now access and break down the emulsified fats. |
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Term
| As the pancreatic lipases break down the triglycerides, a mixture of ____ ____, _____ and __________ are released. They then interact with bile salts in the lumen to form small complexes called ______. |
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Definition
| fatty acids, glycerol, and monoglycerides. Micelles. |
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Term
| What happens when the micelles contact the brush border cells? |
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Definition
| The lipids diffuse across the plasma membrane and enter the cytoplasm. |
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Term
| The BBC reassemble the triglycerides and combine them with ______ and ________. They are then coated with a layer of proteins to form a complex structure called ______. |
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Definition
| cholestrol and phospholipids. chylomicron. |
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Term
| The BBC then secrete the chylomicrons by exocytosis into the _______. When it mixes with lymph, ______ is created. |
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Definition
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Term
| Once in the lacteals, the chylomicrons proceed along the lymphatic collecting vessels, intestinal trunk and then into the ______ _____. Then, the chyle enters the blood at the ______ ______ _____. |
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Definition
| thoracic duct. left subclavian vein. |
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Term
| The capillary walls contain ______ _____ which breaks down the chylomicrons releasing the fatty acids and monoglycerides. |
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Definition
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Term
| Some fatty acids move to the _____ ____ for ATP production and to the _______ for storage as fat. The remaining chylomicrons move to the _____ where they are converted to ____ and later ____. |
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Definition
| skeletal muscle. adipocytes. liver. LDL. HDL. |
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Term
| What is another name for lipid catabolism? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Lipids are broken down into fatty acids then glycerols. |
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Term
| The glyercol unit is converted into ____ through glycolysis which yields __ ATP for each triglyceride broken down. |
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Definition
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Term
| The fatty acids do not completely metabolize until they are absorbed into the _______. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Breaks off the first two carbons as acetly CoA while leaving a shorter fatty acid bound to the second molecule of coenzyme A. |
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Term
| For each step in beta-oxidation, the cell gains ___ ATP and the process repeats until the entire fatty acid has broken down. |
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Definition
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Term
| Beta-oxidation can produce ___ ATP for a __ carbon fatty acid chain. |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the anabolism of fatty acids called? |
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Definition
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Term
| If the fatty acid chains have a double bond before carbon #9, human body cells ______ ____ ___ because our cells lack the necessarry enzyme. |
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Definition
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Term
| What are these fatty acids called? |
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Definition
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Term
| Omega-3 and Omega-6 are examples of? |
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Definition
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Term
| If lipids produce more ATP, why are they not the preferred fuel source of all cells? |
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Definition
| Beta-oxidation is a very slow process and cannot keep up with the constant demands of all body cells. Also, lipid digestition is often incomplete when the body tries to perform it rapidly which produces ketone bodies which can cause a deadly drop in blood pH called ketoacidosis or ketosis. |
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Term
| Proteins are mechanically processed and lubricated during mastication in the mouth but ____ _____ ____ occurs in the mouth. |
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Definition
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Term
| Stomach acids, HCl secreted by the _____ ____ of the stomach, denature the proteins within foods. This exposes the peptide bonds to the enzyme ______ which is secreted by the _____ ____. |
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Definition
| parietal cells. pepsin. chief cells. |
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Term
| Is protein digestion completed in the stmoach? |
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Definition
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Term
| What happens when acidic chyme enters the duodenum? |
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Definition
| CCK stiumlates the release of pancreatic proteases. The activated version of this is trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase, and elastase. They further attack the peptide bonds and break proteins down into dipeptides, tripeptides and amino acids. |
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Term
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Definition
| The BBC secrete enzymes that break down the remaining protein chains into individual amino acids. The enzymes are aminopeptidase and dipeptidase. |
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Term
| The amino acids are then absorbed into ____ ____ ____ by facilitated diffusion and cotransport mechanisms. After diffusion, the the amino acids are moved into the ______ _____ ____ and transported to the _____ for processing. |
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Definition
| brush border cells. hepatic portal vein. liver. |
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Term
| Does the liver control the levels of amino acids like it does with glucose? |
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Definition
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Term
| The liver uses amino acids for what? Can it catabolize amino acids? |
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Definition
| synthesizing plasma proteins. yes. |
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Term
| The body can produce 10 of the amino acides needed in the body, and 10 must be ingested. What are these called? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is an amination rxn? |
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Definition
| An ammonium ion is used to form an amino acid group that is attached to a carbon molecule yielding an amino acid. |
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Term
| What is a transamination rxn? |
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Definition
| The amino acid group of one amino acid is transferred to another molecule which creates a brand new amino acid. |
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Term
| What is the first step in amino acid catabolism? |
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Definition
| The removal of the amino group by deamination which leaves a carbon chain that can usually be converted to pyruvate, acetyl-coA or keto acids AND an ammonium ion. |
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Term
| Are ammonium ions highly toxic? Which cells do these effect? |
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Definition
| Yes, even in low amounts. Liver cells since most of the reactions happen here and they use these ions to create urea. |
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Term
| What is the yield of energy of an amino acid comparable to? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Organic compounds required in very small amounts but play an essential role in specific metabolic pathways. |
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Term
| Are vitamins easily destroyed when exposed to cooking termperatures? How are they best obtained? |
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Definition
| yes. from recently harvested fresh fruits and vegetables. |
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Term
| What are the 2 groups of vitamins? |
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Definition
| Fat soluble and water soluble. |
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Term
| What are the fat soluble vitamins? |
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Definition
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Term
| Where are fat soluble vitamins absorped? |
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Definition
| from the digestive tract along with lipid contents of micelles. |
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Term
| Where are other places besides foods that vitamins can be found? |
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Definition
D - sun exposure
K - intestinal bacteria |
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Term
| Where are excess fat soluble vitamins stored? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the 9 water soluble vitamins? |
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Definition
B1 - thiamine
B2 - riboflavin
B3 - niacin
B5 - pantothenic acid
B6 - pyridoxine
B9 - folic acid
B12 - cobalamin
B7 - biotin
C - ascorbic acid |
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Term
| What are water-soluble vitamins components of? |
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Definition
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Term
| The b-vitamins are rapidly exchanged between the fluid compartments of the ______ _____ and circulating blood. Excessive amounts are excreted in _____. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Inorganic compounds required in very small amounts that are essential for normal cellular processes and body functions. |
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Term
| What are the two categories of minerals? |
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Definition
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Term
| Major minerals are needed in amounts greater than _____ mg a day. Examples? How many are there? |
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Definition
| 100. Calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chloride, magnesium. 13 |
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Term
| Trace minerals are needed in amounts ____ than 100 mg a day. Examples? How many? |
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Definition
| less. Iron, fluorine, manganese, copper, iodide, selenium, zinc, cobalt, and chromium. 14. |
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Term
| What must a balanced diet consist of? |
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Definition
| essential amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, enough water to replace what was lost in urine and feces and evaporation. |
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Term
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Definition
| an unhealthy state resulting from inadequate or excessive absorption of one or more nutrients. |
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Term
| What is kwashiorkor? where does this occur? |
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Definition
| Children who have inadequate protein intake, even if they are getting enough calories. Where grains are consumed more than meats. |
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Term
| What happens to a child suffering from Kwashiorkor? |
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Definition
| Protein synthesis in the liver fails to keep pace with the breakdown of plasma proteins, plasma osmolarity falls. This causes a fluid shift as more water moves out of the capillaries and into the interstitial spaces, the peritoneal cavity or both. A prolonged state causes more severe ascites and edema. More than 100 million children worldwide. |
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Term
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Definition
| Children not consuming enough calories period. Body weight is reduced to less than 60% of the normal body weight for the age. |
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Term
| When does marasmus occurence increase? What about kwashiorkor? |
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Definition
| Prior to age 1. After 18 months. |
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Term
| Which disorder has a better prognosis? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is an eating disorder? |
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Definition
| Psychological problems that result in either inadequate or excessive food consumption. The common thread in these disorders is obsessive concern about food and body weight. |
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Term
| What is anorexia nervosa? |
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Definition
| Self-induced starvation that appears to be the result of severe psychological problems. Most common in adolescent white females whose weight is roughly 30% below normal. Death rates = 10-15% a year. |
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Term
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Definition
| A person goes on an eating binge that may involve a meal that lasts for 1-2 hours and can be up to 20,000 calories. The meal is followed by induced vomiting usually along with the use of laxatives and diueretics. More common than anorexia and effects adolescent females. |
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Term
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Definition
| Being 20% over ideal weight. 32% of men/35% of women in US obese. |
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Term
| what are the 2 major categories of obesity? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is regulatory obesity? |
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Definition
| The most common form. Results from a failure to regulate food intake so that appetite, diet and activity are in balance. |
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Term
| What is metabolic obesity? |
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Definition
| The condition secondary to some underlying bodily malfunction that affects cell and tissue metabolism. Causes are relatively rare. |
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Term
| What is a metabolic disorder? |
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Definition
| Occurs when abnormal chemical reactions in the body disrupt normal metabolic processes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Several inherited metabolic disorders result from an inability to produce specific enzymes involved in amino acid metabolism |
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Term
| What can individuals with PKU not do? |
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Definition
| Convert penylalanine to tyrosine. Its an essential step in the synthesis of norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine and melanin. |
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Term
| What happens if PKU is not discovered in infancy? |
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Definition
| Central nervous development is inhibited and severe brain damage results. Warnings are printed on coke cans and shit. |
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Term
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Definition
| When glucose supplies are limited, the breakdowns of fatty acids and some amino acids in liver cells elevate acetyl-coA levels and results in the production of small organic acids called ketone bodies. |
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Term
| What happens to ketone bodies? |
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Definition
| They usually diffuse out of the liver and accumulate in the blood stream. |
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Term
| can you smell acetone on the breath? |
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Definition
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Term
| What can ketone bodies do? |
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Definition
| Lower the pH of blood = ketoacidosis. Can cause coma, arrhythmias and death. |
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Term
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Definition
| When RNA is recycled as part of metabolic turnover, the purines cannot be catabolized. They are instead deaminated and excreted as uric acid. At high concentrations the body fluids can become saturdated with uric acid and insoluble uric acid crystals can form. The joints are effected. |
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Term
| What is food intake regulated by? What do they effect? |
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Definition
| Hormones. the hypothalamus. |
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Term
| What does ghrelin effect? |
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Definition
| Appetite enhancer secreted by the stomach mucosa. |
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Term
| What does orexins effect? |
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Definition
| Neurotransmitters that act as powerful appetite enhancers. |
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Term
| What does Neuropeptide Y effect? |
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Definition
| causes the craving of carbs |
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Term
| What does galanin effect? |
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Definition
| A neuropeptide that causes us to crave fats |
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Term
| What does serotonin effect? |
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Definition
| A neurotransmitter that causes us to feel full and satisfied |
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Term
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Definition
| Secreted by fat tissue in response to an increase in fatty mass in the body - inhibits feeding |
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Term
| Non hormonal factors that affect food - |
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Definition
| stretch, body temp, blood nutrient levels (glucose), psychological factors. |
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Term
| When activity levels increase, ATP production accelerates and more ____ is generated. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| The study of the flow of energy and its changes from one form to another |
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Term
| What is basal metabolic rate? |
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Definition
| the minimum resting energy expenditure of an awake, alert person |
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Term
| Where is most of the body heat created at rest? |
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Definition
| The liver, brain, heart, kidneys, and endocrine organs |
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Term
| Activation of skeletal muscles causes a dramatic ______ in body heat production. |
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Definition
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Term
| The body ____ generally has the highest temperature whereas the _____ has the lowest. |
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Definition
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Term
| When blood is deep in the organs heat loss from the shell in _____. |
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Definition
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Term
| When blood is in the skin capillaries, head loss is ______ |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the body's thermostat? |
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Definition
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Term
| It's heat-promoting centers and heat-loss centers receives input from the ______ and ______ __________. |
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Definition
| peripheral and central thermoreceptors |
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Term
| What is thermoregulation? |
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Definition
| Homeostatic control of body temperature and is regulated by balanced heat producing mechanism with heat loss mechanisms. |
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Term
| What are heat-loss mechanisms? |
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Definition
| Sweating, vasodilation of skin capillaries, behavioral modification, radiation, conduction, convection, evaporation. |
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Term
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Definition
| The loss of heat in the form of infared waves or thermal energy |
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Term
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Definition
| The transfer of heat between two objects that are in direct contact. |
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Term
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Definition
| When skin transfers heat to the air that overlies the skin of the body causing the movement of air molecules. |
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Term
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Definition
| Heat is absorped by water molecules that become so energized that they escape as water vapor taking heat with it. |
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Term
| What are heat-promoting mechanisms? |
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Definition
| Vasoconstriction, increase in metabolic rate, shivering, behavioral modification, enhanced thyroxine release. |
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Term
| What are the effects of a failure to control body temperature? |
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Definition
| disorientation, loss of muscle control, loss of consciousness, convulsions, cardiac arrest, protein denaturation, coma or death. |
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