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Ch. 22 - Metabolism and Energetics
Test 3
135
Anatomy
Undergraduate 3
03/31/2013

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Term
What is metabolism?
Definition
all the chemical rxn that occur in an organism
Term
What is cellular metabolism?
Definition
Refers to the collective chemical rxns that occur within cells in order to provide the energy needed to maintain homeostasis and to perform essential functions.
Term
What is anabolism?
Definition
Chemical rxns where organic compounds are created. BUILD UP
Term
What is catabolism?
Definition
Chemical rxns where organic compounds are broken down.
Term
What is metabolic turnover?
Definition
Cells continuously break down and replace all of their organic components except DNA
Term
What is a nutrient pool?
Definition
An accessible reserve of organic compounds that can be used to metabolic turnover or energy production.
Term
Where do cells absorb organic molecules from? This supplements what?
Definition
Surrounding interstitial fluids. Those released through catabolic rxns in metabolic turnover.
Term
The components of the nutrient pool can be used for ______ or broken down further for ATP production.
Definition
anabolism
Term
During the catabolic rxn of mitochondria, roughly ____ of the energy is used for the production of ATP and cellular work.
Definition
40%
Term
The other 60% is lost as _____.
Definition
heat
Term
Cells can break down any available _____ from the nutrient pool to obtain energy.
Definition
substrate
Term
How are nutrients obtained?
Definition
Via digestion and absorption and then distributed to the body cells via the blood and fluids.
Term
What is the primary fuel source?
Definition
Glucose
Term
_____ ____ require a constant stream of glucose. What happens during starvation?
Definition
Neural tissue. Other tissues can shift to fatty acids or amino acids to conserve glucose for neural tissue.
Term
Liver cells store? If absorption fails, what happens?
Definition
Triglycerides and glycogen reserves. These reserves are broken down and used for energy.
Term
Skeletal muscles at rest metabolize?
Definition
fatty acids and use glucose to build glycogen reserves.
Term
If the body is unable to maintain normal nutrient levels, the _____ proteins can be broken down and release the amino acids into circulation for use by other tissues.
Definition
contractile.
Term
Salivary amylase does what?
Definition
IN THE MOUTH. Breaks down complex carbohydrates into a mixture of disaccarides and oligosaccarides.
Term
Where is salivary amylase denatured?
Definition
The stomach. Carbohydrate digestion stops.
Term
What happens when chyme arrives in the duodenum?
Definition
Secretin stimulates the secretion of sodium bicarbonate which buffers the PH so intestinal enzymes will work properly.
Term
What is happening at the same time?
Definition
CCK triggers the release of pancreatic amylase which continues the break down of carbs.
Term
What is released by carbohydrates and what does it do?
Definition
GIP. Stiumlates the release of insulin by the pancreas.
Term
What secrets enzymes to digest the disaccarides into monosaccarides?
Definition
Brush border enzymes
Term
Maltase breaks maltose into?
Sucrase breaks sucrose into?
Lactase breaks lactose into?
Definition
2 glucose.
1 glucose and 1 fructose.
1 glucose and 1 galactose.
Term
What happens to the monosaccarides next?
Definition
They are absorbed across the apical surface of the brush border cells, through the cytoplasm, and then pass by facilitated diffusion across the basolateral surfaces into the capillaries of the hepatic portal vein.
Term
What are indigestible carbs called? What is it?
Definition
FIBER. A nutrient source for the bacterial flora of the large intestine. The bacterial flora generate small qualities of intestinal gas called flatus.
Term
Once the liver receives the monosaccarides, they are converted into glucose, which are released into the blood stream for transport to body cells and used in _____ ________ while any excess glucose molecules are stored in the liver as ______.
Definition
ATP production. Glycogen.
Term
What is glycogensis?
Definition
Conversion of excess glucose into glycogen. Limited amount for short term use. Can also be produced and stored in skeletal muscle cells.
Term
What is glycogenolysis?
Definition
When glucose consumption is not adequate to maintain blood glucose levels, glycogen may be broken down and released stored glucose molecules into the blood.
Term
What is gluconeogenesis?
Definition
When glucose molecules are synthesized from smaller carbon chains derived from fats or proteins. Occurs after glycogen stores have been depleted and as a last resort for energy production.
Term
What is the preferred substrate for catabolism?
Definition
Glucose
Term
LOOK AT YOUR GLYCOLYSIS, CITRIC ACID AND ETS NOTES
Definition
bitch
Term
What cell secretes insulin?
Definition
Beta cells of the islet of langerhaans in the pancreas.
Term
When is insulin secreted?
Definition
When blood glucose levels are HIGH. Insulin lowers blood sugar by stimulating glycogenesis, lipogenesis, and gluocse catabolism.
Term
What cell secretes glucagon?
Definition
Alpha cells of the islet of langerhaans in the pancreas.
Term
When is glucagon secreted?
Definition
When blood glucose levels are LOW. Raises blood sugar levels by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogensis.
Term
The bolus in the mouth is mixed with ____ ____ and minimal ____ digestion begins.
Definition
lingual lipases. fat.
Term
Why is lingual lipase ineffective?
Definition
Lipids are hydrophobic and the lipase can only attack triglycerides at the surface of fat droplets. LL continues to function in the stomach, only 20% of the triglycerides get broken down by the time it leaves the stomach.
Term
What happens when fatty chyme reaches the duodenum?
Definition
CCK stimulates the release of bile from the liver/gallbladder to emulsify fats. CCK also stimulates the release of pancreatic lipase which can now access and break down the emulsified fats.
Term
As the pancreatic lipases break down the triglycerides, a mixture of ____ ____, _____ and __________ are released. They then interact with bile salts in the lumen to form small complexes called ______.
Definition
fatty acids, glycerol, and monoglycerides. Micelles.
Term
What happens when the micelles contact the brush border cells?
Definition
The lipids diffuse across the plasma membrane and enter the cytoplasm.
Term
The BBC reassemble the triglycerides and combine them with ______ and ________. They are then coated with a layer of proteins to form a complex structure called ______.
Definition
cholestrol and phospholipids. chylomicron.
Term
The BBC then secrete the chylomicrons by exocytosis into the _______. When it mixes with lymph, ______ is created.
Definition
Lacteals. Chyle.
Term
Once in the lacteals, the chylomicrons proceed along the lymphatic collecting vessels, intestinal trunk and then into the ______ _____. Then, the chyle enters the blood at the ______ ______ _____.
Definition
thoracic duct. left subclavian vein.
Term
The capillary walls contain ______ _____ which breaks down the chylomicrons releasing the fatty acids and monoglycerides.
Definition
lipoprotein lipase.
Term
Some fatty acids move to the _____ ____ for ATP production and to the _______ for storage as fat. The remaining chylomicrons move to the _____ where they are converted to ____ and later ____.
Definition
skeletal muscle. adipocytes. liver. LDL. HDL.
Term
What is another name for lipid catabolism?
Definition
Lipolysis.
Term
What is lipolysis?
Definition
Lipids are broken down into fatty acids then glycerols.
Term
The glyercol unit is converted into ____ through glycolysis which yields __ ATP for each triglyceride broken down.
Definition
pyruvate. 2.
Term
The fatty acids do not completely metabolize until they are absorbed into the _______.
Definition
mitochondria.
Term
What is beta-oxidation?
Definition
Breaks off the first two carbons as acetly CoA while leaving a shorter fatty acid bound to the second molecule of coenzyme A.
Term
For each step in beta-oxidation, the cell gains ___ ATP and the process repeats until the entire fatty acid has broken down.
Definition
17.
Term
Beta-oxidation can produce ___ ATP for a __ carbon fatty acid chain.
Definition
51. 6.
Term
What is the anabolism of fatty acids called?
Definition
Lipogensis
Term
If the fatty acid chains have a double bond before carbon #9, human body cells ______ ____ ___ because our cells lack the necessarry enzyme.
Definition
cannot make it.
Term
What are these fatty acids called?
Definition
Essential fatty acids.
Term
Omega-3 and Omega-6 are examples of?
Definition
Essential fatty acids.
Term
If lipids produce more ATP, why are they not the preferred fuel source of all cells?
Definition
Beta-oxidation is a very slow process and cannot keep up with the constant demands of all body cells. Also, lipid digestition is often incomplete when the body tries to perform it rapidly which produces ketone bodies which can cause a deadly drop in blood pH called ketoacidosis or ketosis.
Term
Proteins are mechanically processed and lubricated during mastication in the mouth but ____ _____ ____ occurs in the mouth.
Definition
no chemical digetsion
Term
Stomach acids, HCl secreted by the _____ ____ of the stomach, denature the proteins within foods. This exposes the peptide bonds to the enzyme ______ which is secreted by the _____ ____.
Definition
parietal cells. pepsin. chief cells.
Term
Is protein digestion completed in the stmoach?
Definition
no
Term
What happens when acidic chyme enters the duodenum?
Definition
CCK stiumlates the release of pancreatic proteases. The activated version of this is trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase, and elastase. They further attack the peptide bonds and break proteins down into dipeptides, tripeptides and amino acids.
Term
What happens next?
Definition
The BBC secrete enzymes that break down the remaining protein chains into individual amino acids. The enzymes are aminopeptidase and dipeptidase.
Term
The amino acids are then absorbed into ____ ____ ____ by facilitated diffusion and cotransport mechanisms. After diffusion, the the amino acids are moved into the ______ _____ ____ and transported to the _____ for processing.
Definition
brush border cells. hepatic portal vein. liver.
Term
Does the liver control the levels of amino acids like it does with glucose?
Definition
No.
Term
The liver uses amino acids for what? Can it catabolize amino acids?
Definition
synthesizing plasma proteins. yes.
Term
The body can produce 10 of the amino acides needed in the body, and 10 must be ingested. What are these called?
Definition
Essential.
Term
What is an amination rxn?
Definition
An ammonium ion is used to form an amino acid group that is attached to a carbon molecule yielding an amino acid.
Term
What is a transamination rxn?
Definition
The amino acid group of one amino acid is transferred to another molecule which creates a brand new amino acid.
Term
What is the first step in amino acid catabolism?
Definition
The removal of the amino group by deamination which leaves a carbon chain that can usually be converted to pyruvate, acetyl-coA or keto acids AND an ammonium ion.
Term
Are ammonium ions highly toxic? Which cells do these effect?
Definition
Yes, even in low amounts. Liver cells since most of the reactions happen here and they use these ions to create urea.
Term
What is the yield of energy of an amino acid comparable to?
Definition
A carbohydrate
Term
What are vitamins?
Definition
Organic compounds required in very small amounts but play an essential role in specific metabolic pathways.
Term
Are vitamins easily destroyed when exposed to cooking termperatures? How are they best obtained?
Definition
yes. from recently harvested fresh fruits and vegetables.
Term
What are the 2 groups of vitamins?
Definition
Fat soluble and water soluble.
Term
What are the fat soluble vitamins?
Definition
A
D
E
K
Term
Where are fat soluble vitamins absorped?
Definition
from the digestive tract along with lipid contents of micelles.
Term
Where are other places besides foods that vitamins can be found?
Definition
D - sun exposure
K - intestinal bacteria
Term
Where are excess fat soluble vitamins stored?
Definition
Adipose cells
Term
What are the 9 water soluble vitamins?
Definition
B1 - thiamine
B2 - riboflavin
B3 - niacin
B5 - pantothenic acid
B6 - pyridoxine
B9 - folic acid
B12 - cobalamin
B7 - biotin
C - ascorbic acid
Term
What are water-soluble vitamins components of?
Definition
Coenzymes.
Term
The b-vitamins are rapidly exchanged between the fluid compartments of the ______ _____ and circulating blood. Excessive amounts are excreted in _____.
Definition
digestive tracts. urine.
Term
What are minerals?
Definition
Inorganic compounds required in very small amounts that are essential for normal cellular processes and body functions.
Term
What are the two categories of minerals?
Definition
Major and trace
Term
Major minerals are needed in amounts greater than _____ mg a day. Examples? How many are there?
Definition
100. Calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chloride, magnesium. 13
Term
Trace minerals are needed in amounts ____ than 100 mg a day. Examples? How many?
Definition
less. Iron, fluorine, manganese, copper, iodide, selenium, zinc, cobalt, and chromium. 14.
Term
What must a balanced diet consist of?
Definition
essential amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, enough water to replace what was lost in urine and feces and evaporation.
Term
What is malnutrition?
Definition
an unhealthy state resulting from inadequate or excessive absorption of one or more nutrients.
Term
What is kwashiorkor? where does this occur?
Definition
Children who have inadequate protein intake, even if they are getting enough calories. Where grains are consumed more than meats.
Term
What happens to a child suffering from Kwashiorkor?
Definition
Protein synthesis in the liver fails to keep pace with the breakdown of plasma proteins, plasma osmolarity falls. This causes a fluid shift as more water moves out of the capillaries and into the interstitial spaces, the peritoneal cavity or both. A prolonged state causes more severe ascites and edema. More than 100 million children worldwide.
Term
What is marasmus?
Definition
Children not consuming enough calories period. Body weight is reduced to less than 60% of the normal body weight for the age.
Term
When does marasmus occurence increase? What about kwashiorkor?
Definition
Prior to age 1. After 18 months.
Term
Which disorder has a better prognosis?
Definition
Marasmus.
Term
What is an eating disorder?
Definition
Psychological problems that result in either inadequate or excessive food consumption. The common thread in these disorders is obsessive concern about food and body weight.
Term
What is anorexia nervosa?
Definition
Self-induced starvation that appears to be the result of severe psychological problems. Most common in adolescent white females whose weight is roughly 30% below normal. Death rates = 10-15% a year.
Term
What is bulimia?
Definition
A person goes on an eating binge that may involve a meal that lasts for 1-2 hours and can be up to 20,000 calories. The meal is followed by induced vomiting usually along with the use of laxatives and diueretics. More common than anorexia and effects adolescent females.
Term
What is obesity?
Definition
Being 20% over ideal weight. 32% of men/35% of women in US obese.
Term
what are the 2 major categories of obesity?
Definition
Regulatory and metabolic
Term
What is regulatory obesity?
Definition
The most common form. Results from a failure to regulate food intake so that appetite, diet and activity are in balance.
Term
What is metabolic obesity?
Definition
The condition secondary to some underlying bodily malfunction that affects cell and tissue metabolism. Causes are relatively rare.
Term
What is a metabolic disorder?
Definition
Occurs when abnormal chemical reactions in the body disrupt normal metabolic processes.
Term
What is phenylketonuria?
Definition
Several inherited metabolic disorders result from an inability to produce specific enzymes involved in amino acid metabolism
Term
What can individuals with PKU not do?
Definition
Convert penylalanine to tyrosine. Its an essential step in the synthesis of norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine and melanin.
Term
What happens if PKU is not discovered in infancy?
Definition
Central nervous development is inhibited and severe brain damage results. Warnings are printed on coke cans and shit.
Term
What is ketoacidosis?
Definition
When glucose supplies are limited, the breakdowns of fatty acids and some amino acids in liver cells elevate acetyl-coA levels and results in the production of small organic acids called ketone bodies.
Term
What happens to ketone bodies?
Definition
They usually diffuse out of the liver and accumulate in the blood stream.
Term
can you smell acetone on the breath?
Definition
yes
Term
What can ketone bodies do?
Definition
Lower the pH of blood = ketoacidosis. Can cause coma, arrhythmias and death.
Term
What is gout?
Definition
When RNA is recycled as part of metabolic turnover, the purines cannot be catabolized. They are instead deaminated and excreted as uric acid. At high concentrations the body fluids can become saturdated with uric acid and insoluble uric acid crystals can form. The joints are effected.
Term
What is food intake regulated by? What do they effect?
Definition
Hormones. the hypothalamus.
Term
What does ghrelin effect?
Definition
Appetite enhancer secreted by the stomach mucosa.
Term
What does orexins effect?
Definition
Neurotransmitters that act as powerful appetite enhancers.
Term
What does Neuropeptide Y effect?
Definition
causes the craving of carbs
Term
What does galanin effect?
Definition
A neuropeptide that causes us to crave fats
Term
What does serotonin effect?
Definition
A neurotransmitter that causes us to feel full and satisfied
Term
What does leptin effect?
Definition
Secreted by fat tissue in response to an increase in fatty mass in the body - inhibits feeding
Term
Non hormonal factors that affect food -
Definition
stretch, body temp, blood nutrient levels (glucose), psychological factors.
Term
When activity levels increase, ATP production accelerates and more ____ is generated.
Definition
heat
Term
What is energetics?
Definition
The study of the flow of energy and its changes from one form to another
Term
What is basal metabolic rate?
Definition
the minimum resting energy expenditure of an awake, alert person
Term
Where is most of the body heat created at rest?
Definition
The liver, brain, heart, kidneys, and endocrine organs
Term
Activation of skeletal muscles causes a dramatic ______ in body heat production.
Definition
increase
Term
The body ____ generally has the highest temperature whereas the _____ has the lowest.
Definition
core. shell
Term
When blood is deep in the organs heat loss from the shell in _____.
Definition
minimal
Term
When blood is in the skin capillaries, head loss is ______
Definition
maximum
Term
What is the body's thermostat?
Definition
the hypothalamus
Term
It's heat-promoting centers and heat-loss centers receives input from the ______ and ______ __________.
Definition
peripheral and central thermoreceptors
Term
What is thermoregulation?
Definition
Homeostatic control of body temperature and is regulated by balanced heat producing mechanism with heat loss mechanisms.
Term
What are heat-loss mechanisms?
Definition
Sweating, vasodilation of skin capillaries, behavioral modification, radiation, conduction, convection, evaporation.
Term
What is radiation?
Definition
The loss of heat in the form of infared waves or thermal energy
Term
What is conduction?
Definition
The transfer of heat between two objects that are in direct contact.
Term
What is convection?
Definition
When skin transfers heat to the air that overlies the skin of the body causing the movement of air molecules.
Term
What is evaporation?
Definition
Heat is absorped by water molecules that become so energized that they escape as water vapor taking heat with it.
Term
What are heat-promoting mechanisms?
Definition
Vasoconstriction, increase in metabolic rate, shivering, behavioral modification, enhanced thyroxine release.
Term
What are the effects of a failure to control body temperature?
Definition
disorientation, loss of muscle control, loss of consciousness, convulsions, cardiac arrest, protein denaturation, coma or death.
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