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Ch. 18 The Endocrine System
Anatomy
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Anatomy
Undergraduate 3
02/02/2014

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Term
What are hormones and what secretes them?
Definition
Control physiologoical processes such as: balancing composition and volume of body fluids, regulate metabolism and energy production, direct rate and timing of growth and development, exert emergency control during physical and mental strewss, oversee reproductive mechanisms. Endocrine glands secrete into interstitial fluid around cells and travel through bloodstream.
Term
What are 6 glands that are involved with hormones?
Definition

1. Pituitary

2. Thyroid

3. Parathyroid

4. Adrenal

5. Pineal

6. Thymus

Term
What are structures containing endocrine tissue?
Definition

1. Pancreas

2. Hypothalamus

3. Heart

4. Ovary

5. Placenta

6. Testis

7. Kidney

8. Stomach

9. Small intestine

10. Skin

Term
Descrie endocrine homeostasis (mechanism, targets, effects, response).
Definition
Hormones carried in blood, targets all body cells, effects are excitatory and inhibitory, response time in seconds/hours/days, response duration longer than nervous system.
Term
Describe nervous system homeostasis (mechanism, targets, effects, response).
Definition
Action potential and neurotransmitters, targets muscles/glands/neurons, effects excitatory and inhibitory, response time in milliseconds and duration is briefer.
Term
What is the role of hormone receptors?
Definition
Receptors composed of protein/glycoproteins, hormor has no effect if receptor not present, target cells have 2,000 - 100,000 receptors for a hormone, down-regulation is decrease in # of receptors and up-regulation is increase.
Term
What are circulating hormones?
Definition
Act on distant target organ, eventually inactivated by liver and excreted by kidneys.
Term
What are the 2 classes of hormones?
Definition

Lipid-soluble: bind to receptor in cytoplasm or nucles of cell, this includes steroids/thyroid hormones/nitric oxide

Water-soluble: bind to receptor on surface of cell, includes amines/peptides and proteins/eicosanoids

Term
What are steroids (include solubility/examples)?
Definition
Base molecule is cholesterol, soluble in lipid, example is sex hormone.
Term
What are amines (include solubility/examples)?
Definition
Base moledcule is modified amino acids, soluble in water, examples are catecholamines and histamine.
Term
What are proteins and peptides (including solubility/examples)?
Definition
Base molecule is 3-200 amino acid chains, soluble in water, example is TSH.
Term
What are eicosanoids (including solubility/examples)?
Definition
Affects locally, can act as circulating hormone, base molecule is arachidonic acid, soluble in water, examples are prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
Term
Describe the action of lipid-soluble hormones.
Definition
Enter cells through lipid bilayer, bind to receptor in nucles or cytoplasm.
Term
Which hormones are take orally and which are taken by injection?
Definition
Lipid-soluble taken orally, water-soluble taken by injection.
Term
Describe the action of water-soluble hormones.
Definition
Bind to receptor on cell membrane (protein/glycoprotein, action via G proteins), second messenger is then released from receptor.
Term
Describe the relation between cholera and G proteins.
Definition
Cholera is deadly, bacterial infection, leads to massive water diarrhea then dehydration, toxin activates G protein, cAMP pumps Cl- out, water follows, G proteins locked in activated state.
Term
What are the 3 things that the responsiveness of a target cell depends on?
Definition

1. Hormone concentration

2. Receptor abundance

3. Influences of other hormones

Influences can be:

Permissive - second hormone required at same time

Synergistic - two together have greater effect

Antagonistic - opposes action

Term
What are ways in which hormone secretion is controlled?
Definition
Nervous system, blood chemistry, other hormones, feedback systems.
Term
What are the 3 parts of the pituitary gland and what is the pituitary gland controlled by?
Definition

1. Adenohypophysis

2. Pars intermedia

3. Neurohypophysis

Pituitary gland attached to and controlled by hypothalamus which acts as link between nervous and endocrine systems.

Term
How does the hypothalamus release hormones?
Definition
Hypothalamic nuclei are major integrating link between NS and endocrine systems, secretory vesicles store hypothalamic hormones, hormones move from cell body to axon terminals, nerve impulse stimulates exocytosis which releases hormones, hormones diffuse into hypophyseal portal system.
Term
What is the function/target of the human growth hormone?
Definition
Stimulates secretion of insulin-like growth factors that promote growth, targets everywhere.
Term
What is the function/target of the thyroid-stimulating hormone?
Definition
Stimulates synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones by thyroid gland.
Term
What is the function/target of prolactin?
Definition
Stimulates breast growth/development of mammary glands/milk production.
Term
What is the function/target of follicle-stimulating hormone?
Definition
Ovaries initiate development of oocytes/testes initiate development of spermatozoa.
Term
What is the function/target of luteinizing hormone?
Definition
Ovaries stimulate ovulation/testes stimulate testosterone production.
Term
What is the function/target of adrenocorticotropic hormone?
Definition
Stimulates release of glucocorticoids from adrenal cortex.
Term
What is the function/target of melanocyte-stimulating hormone?
Definition
Stimulates production and release of melanin by melanocytes in skin and hair.
Term
How much of the pituitary gland is the anterior pituitary?
Definition
Makes up 75% of pituitary gland.
Term
What are the functions of and structure of the posterior pituitary?
Definition
Does not synthesis hormones only sores and releases them, made up of pituicytes and hypothalamic axons.
Term
What are the 2 posterior pituitary hormones?
Definition

Oxytocin: increases contractions in uterus, letdown reflex in breasts.

Antidiuretic hormone: decreases urine production, kidney water reabsorption, pain/stress/stimulants/morphine increase secretion.

Term
Where is the thyroid gland located?
Definition
Inferior to larynx.
Term
What hormones do the thyroid follicular cells release and what is their function?
Definition

T4 = thyroxine

T3 = triiodothyronine

Increase oxygen use and BMR, cellular metabolism, stimulate protein synthesis and use of glucose, accelerates growth and development.

Term
What hormones do the thyroid parafollicular cells and what is their function?
Definition
Calcitonin, lowers blood Ca level by inhibiting action of osteoclasts in bone.
Term
Where are the parathyroid glands and what hormones do they release?
Definition
Posterior to thyroid, parathyroid hormone invloved which increases osteoclast activity which reabsorbs Ca and Mg from urine, raises blood Ca level.
Term
Where is the adrenal cortex located, what is its structure and function?
Definition
Superior to kidneys, 80-90% weight of the adrenal gland, secretes steroid hormones essential for life.
Term
Describe the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex.
Definition
Outer zone, mineralocorticoids which regulate Na reabsorption and K excretion, help adjust blood pressure and blood volume, target cells in kidneys.
Term
Describe the zona fasiculata of the adrenal cortex.
Definition
Middle zone, glucocorticoids which increase blood glucose levels, beakdown of proteins in muscle fibers, formation of glucose, lipolysis, stress resistance, anti-inflammatory.
Term
Describe the zona reticularis of the adrenal cortex.
Definition
Inner zone, synthesize androgens for masculinizing effects, dehydroepiandrosterone most common, femal sex drive promoted, converted to estrogens in females.
Term
Describe the adrenal medulla.
Definition
Chromaffin cells which direct synapse with sympathetic ANS preganglionic neurons, quick release of hormones, catecholamines such as epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Term
What are epinephrine and norepinephrine (functions)?
Definition
Both mimic ANS effects, fight/flight response, help resist stress, not essential for life, increase HR/BP/blood flow to heart and muscle and liver, dilate lung airways, increase glucose/fatty acid levels in blood.
Term
How much of the pancreatic cells are exocrine cells?
Definition
99%
Term
What are the pancreatic alpha cells?
Definition
Produce glucagon, increase blood glucose levels (main job), glygenolysis -> converts glycogen to glucose, gluneogenesis -> fromation of glucose from lactic acid or amino acids.
Term
What are the pancreatic beta cells?
Definition
Produce insulin, decrease blood glucose levels, increase diffusion of glucose into cells, glycogenesis -> converts glucose to glycogen, lipgenesis -> synthesis of fatty acids.
Term
What are the hormones involved with the ovaries?
Definition
Estrogens, progesterone in the corpus luteum regulates menstrual cycle/maintains pregnancy/prepares breasts for lactation/maintins and develops female secondary sex characteristics, inhibin inhibits FSH secretion, relaxin relaxes pubic symphysis and cervix during pregnancy and childbirth.
Term
What are the hormones dealing with the testes?
Definition

Testosterone: sperm production and male secondary sex characteristics

Inhibin: inhibits FSH

Term
What are the cells and disorders associated with the pineal gland?
Definition
Pinealocytes which are at the terminus of sympathetic postganglionic fibers and secrete melatonin in darkness to maintain sleepiness, seasonal affective disorder involved which is too much melatonin.
Term
What are hormones and cells involved with the thymus?
Definition
Thymocytes which secrete thymosin/thymic humoral factor/thymic factor/thymopoeitin, promote proliferation of T lymphocytes.
Term
What are hormones involved with the GI tract?
Definition

Gastrin: increases stomach motility, secretes gastric juice

Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide: stimulates insulin release

Secretin: stimulates bile and pancreatic juice secretion

Cholecystokinin: same as secretin and feeling full after meal

Term
What are the hormones involved with the placenta?
Definition

Human chorionic gonadotropin: stimulates corpus luteum to maintain pregnancy

Estrogens/progesterones: maintain pregnancy/prepare breasts

Human chorionic somatomammotropin: prepare breasts

Term
What are the hormones associated with the kidneys?
Definition

Renin: causes vasoconstriction and release of aldosterone

Erythropoietin: increases RBC production

Calcitrol: increases absorption of Ca and P

Term
What is a hormone associated with the heart?
Definition
Atrial natriuretic polypeptide: decreases BP
Term
What is a hormone associated with adipose tissue?
Definition
Leptin: suppresses appetite
Term
Describe the homeostatic responses in relation to stress.
Definition
Anything disrupting normal limits of chemistry/temperature/pressure can be classified as stress, Eustress is helpful stress, Distress is harmful stress.
Term
What is the general adaptation syndrome?
Definition
Body changes resulting from extreme long last or unusal stressors, does not maintain homeostasis, does prepare body for emergency, also called stress response.
Term
What are the 3 stages of the general adaptation syndrome?
Definition

1. Fight/Flight Response

2. Resistance Reaction

3. Exhaustion

Term
Describe stage 1 of GAS.
Definition
Fight/Flight, hypothalamus activates the sympathetic ANS which releases epinephrine and norepinephrine and targets adrenal glands which then releases cortisol, brain/muscles/heart more active, delivers huge amounts of oxygen and glucose to vital organs, inhibits digestive/urinary/reproductive functions, short duration.
Term
Describe stage 2 of GAS.
Definition
Resistance reaction, longer lasting response, hypothalmic release hormones involved, increased aldosterone and cortisol, allows body to continue fighting stressor, ATP/enzymes/cirulatory changes, blood chemistry back to normal levels but if that fails goes to stage 3.
Term
Describe stage 3 of GAS.
Definition
Exhaustion, prolonged exposure to high levels of cortisol and other hormones, muscle wasting, immune suppression, GI ulcers, failure of pancreatic beta cells, leads to death.
Term
How does stress relate to disease?
Definition
Stress can suppress interleukin-1 secretion, IL-1 stimulates immune responses and responds to infection/inflammation etc.
Term
How does aging relate to disease?
Definition
Frequence of disorders increase, decreases secretion of most hormones, decreased estrogens in females lead to esteoporosis/high BP/atherosclerosis.
Term
What is pituitary dwarfism?
Definition
Hyposecretion of pituitary hGH during growth years.
Term
What is giantism?
Definition
Hypersecretion of hGH during growth years.
Term
What is acromegaly?
Definition
Hypersecretion of hGH during adulthood, bones of hands/face/feet thicken, skin thickens, eyelids/nose/lips/tongue enlarge.
Term
What is diabetes insipidus?
Definition
Most common posterior pituitary gland dysfunction, inability to secrete or respond to ADH, brain damage/kidney non-responsiveness, copious urine, dehydration and thirst, treatments include hormone replacement/restrict salt in diet/diuretics.
Term
What is congenital hypothyroidism?
Definition
Thyroid hyposecretion fetal/infant stage, small stature, mental retardation, treatment includes TH supplements for life.
Term
What is myxedema?
Definition
Adult hypothyroidism, edema/weight gain/puffy skin/lethargy, occurs 5x more in females, treatment includes TH supplement.
Term
What is Graves' Disease?
Definition
Most common form of hyperthyroidism, autoimmune disorder, causes thyroid growth, exopthalamus, 7-10x more common in females, treatment includes removal or destruction of part of thyroid.
Term
What is goiter?
Definition
Enlarged thyroid, sometimes dietary iodine intake too low leading to thyroid compensates.
Term
What is tetany?
Definition
Maintained contraction of skeletal muscles, associated with hypoparathyroidism, Ca deficiency then skeletal muscle spasms as action potentials produced spontaneously.
Term
What is Cushing's syndrome?
Definition
Cortisol hypersecretion by adrenal cortex, tumor in adrenal gland or elsewhere can be cause, moon face/buffalo hump on back/muscle wasting, treatment includes removal of tumor.
Term
What is Addison's disease?
Definition
Hyposecretion of glucocorticoids and aldosterone, most often an autoimmune disorder, effects include hypoglycemia/Na+ loss/low BP/dehydration/muscle weakness.
Term
What is diabetes mellitus?
Definition
Most common endocrine disorder, 4th leading cause of death by disease, inability to produce or use insulin, leads to excessive urine/excessive thirst/excessive eating.
Term
What is type I diabetes mellitus?
Definition
Automimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells, usually appears in childhood, often by the time symptoms appear 80-90% of beta cells are destroyed, insulent injections, acidosis can lead to death.
Term
What is type II diabetes mellitus?
Definition
90% of cases, occurs most in those over 35/overweight, insulin receptor down regulation so target cells become less sensitive to insulin, controlled with diet/exercise/weight loss.
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