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Ch. 1-4
Dr. Eagle
115
Anatomy
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09/18/2016

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Term
selection pressures
Definition
forces that promote reproductive success of some individuals more than others
Term
adaptations
Definition
inherited features of anatomy and physiology that evolved in response to pressures and that enable organism to succeed
Term
evolution
Definition
Change in genetic composition of population of organisms
Term
reductionism
Definition
large, complex systems can be understood by studying their simpler components
Term
holism
Definition
“emergent properties” of the whole organism cannot be predicted from the properties of the separate parts
Term
organization
Definition
living things exhibit a higher level of organization than nonliving things
Term
cellular composition
Definition
living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells
Term
metabolism
Definition
sum of all internal chemical change: anabolism (synthesis) and catabolism (digestion)
Term
responsiveness
Definition
ability to sense and react to stimuli (irritability or excitability)
Term
movement
Definition
of organism and/or of substances within the organism
Term
homeostasis
Definition
the ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions
Term
reproduction
Definition
producing copies of themselves; passing genes to offspring
Term
negative feedback
Definition
allows for dynamic equilibrium within a limited range around a set point
Term
receptor
Definition
structure that senses change in the body (e.g., stretch receptors above heart that monitor blood pressure)
Term
integrating (control) center
Definition
control center that processes the sensory information, “makes a decision,” and directs the response (e.g., cardiac center of the brain)
Term
effector
Definition
cell or organ that carries out the final corrective action to restore homeostasis (e.g., the heart)
Term
positive feedback
Definition
Leads to greater change in the same direction
Feedback loop is repeated—change produces more change
Term
squamous cells
Definition
thin, flat, scaly
Term
cuboidal cells
Definition
squarish-looking
Term
columnar cells
Definition
taller than wide
Term
polygonal cells
Definition
irregularly angular shapes, multiple sides
Term
stellate cells
Definition
star like
Term
spheroid to ovoid cells
Definition
round to oval
Term
discoid cells
Definition
disc shaped
Term
fusiform
Definition
thick in middle, tapered toward the ends
Term
fibrous
Definition
thread like
Term
plasma cell membrane
Definition
Surrounds cell, defines boundaries
Made of proteins and lipids
Term
cytoplasm
Definition
Organelles
Cytoskeleton
Inclusions (stored or
foreign particles)
Cytosol (intracellular fluid, ICF)
Term
extracellular fluid (ECF)
Definition
Fluid outside of cells
Includes tissue (interstitial) fluid
Term
plasma membrane
Definition
border of the cell
Term
hydrophilic membrane
Definition
heads face water on each side of membrane
Term
hydrophobic tails
Definition
are directed toward the center, avoiding water
Term
integral protein
Definition
penetrate membrane
Term
peripheral protein
Definition
Adhere to one face of the membrane (do not penetrate it)
Usually tethered to the cytoskeleton
Term
channel proteins
Definition
allow hydrophilic solutes and water to pass through membrane
Term
enzymes
Definition
catalyze reactions including digestion of molecules, production of second messengers
Term
second messenger systems
Definition
communicate within cell receiving chemical message
Term
carriers
Definition
bind solutes and transfer them across membrane
Term
pumps
Definition
carriers that consume ATP
Term
cell identity markers
Definition
glycoproteins acting as identification tags
Term
cell adhesion molecules
Definition
mechanically link cell to extracellular material
Term
glycocalyx
Definition
Fuzzy coat external to plasma membrane
Carbohydrate moieties of glycoproteins and glycolipids
Unique in everyone but identical twins
Term
microvilli
Definition
On some absorptive cells they are very dense and appear as a fringe—“brush border”
Term
cilia
Definition
Beat in waves sweeping material across a surface in one direction
hairlike processes 7–10 m long
Term
axoneme
Definition
core of motile cilium
Two central microtubules surrounded by ring of nine pairs
Term
cystic fibrosis
Definition
hereditary disease in which cells make chloride pumps, but fail to install them in the plasma membrane
Term
tail of a sperm
Definition
only functional flagellum in humans
Term
tonicity
Definition
ability of a surrounding solution (bath) to affect fluid volume and pressure in a cell
Term
hypotonic solution
Definition
causes cell to absorb water and swell
Has a lower concentration of nonpermeating solutes than intracellular fluid (ICF)
Term
hypertonic solution
Definition
causes cell to lose water and shrivel (crenate)
Has a higher concentration of nonpermeating solutes than ICF
Term
isotonic solution
Definition
causes no change in cell volume
Concentrations of nonpermeating solutes in bath and ICF are the same
Term
cytoskeleton
Definition
network of protein filaments and cylinders
Term
cytoskeleton
Definition
Composed of: microfilaments, intermediate fibers, microtubules
Term
DNA
Definition
long, thread-like molecule with uniform diameter, but varied length
Term
DNA
Definition
Nucleotide consists of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base
Term
a single nucleotide
Definition
One sugar—deoxyribose
One phosphate group
One nitrogenous base
Term
DNA bases
Definition
A, T, C, G
Term
purines
Definition
double ring
Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
Term
pyrimidines
Definition
single ring
Cytosine (C)
Thymine (T)
Uracil (U)
Term
gene
Definition
a segment of DNA coding for the synthesis of a specific protein
Term
genome
Definition
all the genes of one person
Term
histones
Definition
proteins crucial for DNA packing
Term
chromatin
Definition
fine filamentous DNA material complexed with proteins
Term
RNA
Definition
smaller molecules that resemble DNA
Term
3 important RNAs for protein synthesis
Definition
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Term
RNA
Definition
One nucleotide chain (not a double helix)
Ribose replaces deoxyribose as the sugar
Uracil replaces thymine as a nitrogenous base
Term
gene
Definition
an information-containing segment of DNA that codes for the production of a molecule of RNA that plays a role in synthesizing one or more proteins
Term
genetic code
Definition
a system that enables these four nucleotides to code for amino acid sequences of all proteins
Term
base triplet
Definition
a sequence of three DNA nucleotides that stands for one amino acid
Term
codon
Definition
the 3-base sequence in mRNA
Term
stop codon
Definition
UAG, UGA, and UAA: signal “end of message,” like a period at the end of a sentence
Term
start codon
Definition
AUG codes for methionine, and begins the amino acid sequence of the protein
Term
transcription
Definition
copying genetic instructions from DNA to mRNA
Term
RNA polymerase
Definition
enzyme that binds to DNA and assembles mRNA
Term
alternative splicing
Definition
variations in the way exons are spliced allow for a variety of proteins to be produced from one gene
Term
pre mRNA
Definition
immature RNA produced by transcription
Term
exons
Definition
“sense” portions of the pre-mRNA that will be exported from the nucleus and translated into protein
Term
introns
Definition
“nonsense” portions of the pre-mRNA that must be removed before translation
Term
translation
Definition
process that converts the language of nucleotides into the language of amino acids
Term
mRNA
Definition
carries code from nucleus to cytoplasm
Term
tRNA
Definition
delivers a single amino acid to the ribosome for it to be added to growing protein chain
Term
ribosomes
Definition
organelles that read the message in RNA
Term
anticodon
Definition
series of 3 nucleotides that are complementary to codon of mRNA
Term
Three steps to translation
Definition
Initiation, Elongation, Termination
Term
four steps of DNA replication
Definition
unwinding, unzipping, building new DNA strands, repackaging
Term
mutations
Definition
changes in DNA structure due to replication errors or environmental factors (radiation, viruses, chemicals)
Term
heredity
Definition
transmission of genetic characteristics from parent to offspring
Term
karyotype
Definition
chart of 46 chromosomes laid out in order by size
Term
diploid
Definition
describes any cell with 23 pairs of chromosomes (somatic cells)
Term
haploid
Definition
describes cells containing half as many chromosomes (23 unpaired) as somatic cells; that is, sperm and egg cells (germ cells)
Term
locus
Definition
the location of a particular gene on a chromosome
Term
alleles
Definition
different forms of gene at same locus on two homologous chromosomes
Term
dominant allele
Definition
(represented by capital letter)
- If present, corresponding trait is usually seen in the individual
- Masks effect of recessive allele
Term
recessive allele
Definition
(represented by lowercase letter)
- Corresponding trait only seen when recessive allele present on both homologous chromosomes
Term
genotype
Definition
alleles an individual possesses for a particular trait
Term
Homozygous individuals
Definition
two identical alleles for the trait
Term
Heterozygous individuals
Definition
different alleles for that gene
Term
phenotype
Definition
an observable trait
Term
punnet square
Definition
diagram showing possible genotype and phenotype outcomes from parents of known genotype
Term
multiple alleles
Definition
more than two allelic forms of gene
Term
codominance
Definition
both alleles equally dominant
Term
incomplete dominance
Definition
Heterozygous individual shows phenotype intermediate between traits each allele would have produced alone
Term
polygenic inheritance
Definition
genes at two or more loci contribute to a single phenotypic trait
Term
sex linked traits
Definition
carried on X or Y chromosome, and therefore tend to be inherited by one sex more than the other
Term
penetrance of allele
Definition
percentage of population exhibiting expected phenotype
Term
epigenetics
Definition
field examining nongenetic changes that alter gene expression and can be passed to offspring
Term
DNA methylation
Definition
mechanism of epigenetic change in which methyl groups are added to DNA
Term
tumor angiogenesis
Definition
growth of blood vessels by energy-hungry tumors
Term
oncogenes
Definition
Cause cell division to accelerate out of control
Term
tumor suppressed genes
Definition
Healthy tumor suppressor genes inhibit development of cancer
Term
wilms tumor
Definition
Malignant tumor of the kidney occurring especially in children
Term
cachexia
Definition
severe wasting away of depleted tissues
Term
carcinogens
Definition
environmental cancer-causing agents
Term
chromosomes
Definition
23 pairs—the two members of each pair are called homologous chromosomes
Term
chromosomes
Definition
22 pairs called autosomes
Look alike and carry the same genes
1 pair of sex chromosomes (X and Y)
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